MEASUREMENTS AND

CONTROLS
(MODULE 1)
Presented By
RUCHIRA
Assistant Professor
Amity University, Noida.

 Measurement : It is defined as the process of obtaining

a quantitative comparison between a pre-defined
standard and an unknown magnitude.
Example-consider the measurement of length of bar. We
make use of a scale/steel ruler(i.e a standard).
Measurements provide us with a means of describing
various phenomena in quantitative terms.
Measurand : the physical quantity or the characteristic
condition which is the object of measurement in an
instrumentation
is
termed
as
measurand
or
measurement variable or instrumentation variable or
process variable.

 Standard is a value of some quantity which

is setup and established by authority as a
rule for measurement of a quantity.
The system of measurement must be related
to a known standard or else the standard has
no meaning.

Length of the bar-unknown quantity (measure

and)
Scale-pre-defined standard
Compare

compare the unknown length of the bar with a

known length/pre-defined standard.

 Standard is a value of
some quantity which is
setup and established by
authority as a rule for
measurement of a quantity.
The system of
measurement must be
related to a known
standard or else the
standard has no meaning.

Length of the barunknown quantity

(measure and)
Scale-pre-defined standard
Compare.

Basic Requirements of Measuring System

Two main requirements must be met

in the act of measurement.
- The standard used for comparison
must be accurately defined and
commonly accepted.
- The procedure employed for the
measurement & the apparatus used
for comparison must be provable.

Significance of Measurements
We
require
measuring
quantities
for
performance in our day to day activities.
Fundamental requirement of any process is
the measurement. Example i.e. input is fed to the system it undergoes a
process output is indicated.
i.e.
output
is
compared
with
inputmeasurement.
Quantities
pertaining
to
operation
&
performance of the device being developed.
Measurement provides the fundamental basis
for research & development as it involves
measurement of various quantities and
parameters.

Significance of
Measurements
Also,
a fundamental element

of any control
process,
which
requires
the
measured
discrepancy between the actual & desired
performances.
Measurement is also considered as a method of
inspection
Measurement technology combined with computer
integrated manufacturing and database management
systems provide information based process control
i.e. to prevent the occurrence of more number of defects

To ensure proper performance in operations of

modern power stations to monitor temperature,
pressure, vibration amplitudes etc.
Establish the cost of products on the basis of
amount of material, power, time & labor, etc.

Fundamental methods of Measurement

Two basic methods are commonly
employed for measurement.
Direct comparison with primary or
secondary standard.
Indirect comparison through the use
of calibrated system.

Direct comparison

In this method, measurement is made directly by comparing the unknown magnitude

with a standard & the result is expressed by a number. The simplest example for this
would be, length measurement using a meter scale. Here we compare the bars
length(unknown quantity/ measure and) with a scale (Standard/predefined one). We say
that the bar measures so many mms, cms or inches in length.

Direct comparison methods are quite common for measurement of physical quantities like
length, mass, etc.
It is easy and quick.

Drawbacks of Direct comparison methods

The main drawback of this method is, the method is not always accurate and reliable.
Also, human senses are not equipped to make direct comparison of all quantities with
equal facility all the times.
Also, measurement by direct methods are not always possible, feasible and
practicable.

Example: Measurement of temperature, Measurement of weight.

One can experience or feel the hotness or coldness of a body with respect to a
particular environment.
But may not be able to exactly predict or say the temperature.
Further , these measurements in most cases involve human factors.
Hence this method in general is not preferred and employed for very accurate
measurements.

Indirect
comparison
Most of the measurement systems use indirect method of measurement.
In this method a chain of devices which is together called as measuring system is employed.
The chain of devices transform the sensed signal into a more convenient form & indicate this

transformed signal either on an indicator or a recorder or fed to a controller.

i.e. it makes use of a transducing device/element which convert the basic form of input into

an analogous form, which it then processes and presents as a known function of input.
For example, to measure strain in a machine member, a component senses the strain,

another component transforms the sensed signal into an electrical quantity which is then
processed suitably before being fed to a meter or recorder.
Further, human senses are not equipped to detect quantities like pressure, force or strain.
But can feel or sense and cannot predict the exact magnitude of such quantities.
Hence, we require a system that detects/sense, converts and finally presents the output in

the form of a displacement of a pointer over a scale a , a change in resistance or raise in

liquid level with respect to a graduated stem.

DIRECT COMPARISON

INDIRECT COMPARISON

1)Unknown quantity is
measured comparing directly
with primary or secondary
standards

1)unknown magnitude is measured by

comparing with a standard indirectly
through the use of a calibrated system

2)human senses are very

much necessary for
measurement

2)Consists of a chain of devices

which form a measuring system

3)Results obtained from direct

comparison are not that
dependable

3)this consists of a detector element to

detect ,a transducer to transducer
and a unit to indicate or record the
processed signal

4)Not always accurate

4)Fairly accurate .

MODES OF MEASUREMENTS:
Based upon the complexity of
measurement system, three basic
categories of measurements have
been developed.
They are:
Primary measurement
Secondary measurement
Tertiary measurement

 Primary measurement
It is the one that can be very easily made by
direct comparison method/direct observation.
This can be done without any conversions or
translation into lengths or displacements.
Here, the sought value of the parameter is
determined basically by comparing it directly
with reference standards

Examples:
Matching of two colors-in finding the
temperature of a red hot object.
Use of a physical balance-in measuring
weights
Matching or comparing lengths-to find out the
length of the object

Secondary measurement

The indirect measurements involving

one translation are called secondary
measurements.
Example:
THE CONVERSION OF PRESSURE INTO
DISPLACEMENT BY BELLOWS IS A
SIMPLE EXAMPLE OF THE SECONDARY
MEASUREMENT.

Bellows

A bellows is made of several

capsules. These are hollow
flattened structures made from
thin metal plate.

When pressurised the bellows

expand and produce mechanical
movement. If the bellows is
encapsulated inside an outer
container, then the movement is
proportional to the difference
between the pressure on the
inside and outside.
The resulting displacement is a
measure of applied pressure.

APPLICATIONS OF BELLOWS:
1. Bellows are widely used in
industrial and mechanical
applications such as rod
boots, machinery way
covers, lift covers and rail
covers to protect rods,
bearings and sealings from
dirt.
2. Bellows are widely used on
articulated busesandtrams,
to cover the joint where the

Tertiary Measurements
These tertiary measurements involve two
or more translations or conversions.
Examples:
1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge for
measurement of pressure.
2. Measurement of the speed of a rotating
shaft by means of an electric tachometer.
3. Measurement of temperature of an
object by a thermocouple.

ILLUSTRATION OF MEASURING SYSTEM

BOURDON TUBE
PRESSURE GAUGE
Bourdon tube acts as
primary sensing
element and variable
conversion element.
Linkage acts as a
secondary transducer.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE

GAUGE

Pressur
e
(Input
)

Primary
Sensing
Element

Force

Variable
conversion
element

Mechanica
l Linkage
Data
transmission
element

Dispplacement

Variable
Gearing manipulation
element

Pointer
and
dial

Data
presentation
element

Characteristics of measurement
systems
To choose the instrument, most suited to a
particular measurement application, we have to
know the system characteristics.
The performance characteristics may be broadly
divided into two groups, namely static and
dynamic characteristics.
Static characteristics
the performance criteria for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant, or vary only
quite slowly.
Dynamic characteristics
the relationship between the system input and
output when the measured quantity
(measurand) is varying rapidly.

 Static characteristics

Pertain to a system where

quantities to be measured, are
constant or vary very slowly
with time.
Normally static characteristics
of a measurement system are
those that must be considered
when the system\equipment is
used to measure a condition
not varying with respect to
time.
The main static characteristics
may be summed up as
follows:
i) Accuracy ii) Sensitivity
iii)Reproducibility iv) Drift v)
Static error vi) Dead Zone

Dynamic characteristics
Pertain to a system where
quantities to be measured
vary rapidly with time.

There
are
many
phenomenon which can be
conveniently described by
the static response while on
the other hand there are
phenomenon which can only
be reported by dynamic
response.
The overall performance of a
system, many a times can be
evaluated by semi-qualitative
super position of static and
dynamic characteristics.

DEFINITIONS RELATING TO MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS

True value or actual value (Va): It is the actual magnitude of the input
signal to a measuring system which may be approximated but never
truly be determined. The true value may be defined as the average of
an infinite number of measured values, when the average deviation of
the various contributing factors tend to zero.

Indicated value (Vi): The magnitude of the input signal indicated by a

measuring instrument is known as indicated value. This is the supply
of raw or directly recorded data.

Correction: It is the revision applied to the indicated value which

improves the worthiness of the result. Such revision may be in the
form of either an additive factor or a multiplier or both.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Accuracy: The degree of exactness
(closeness) of a measurement compared
to the expected (true) value.
It is expressed in terms of errors

Static error = measured value true

value
Precision: A measure of the consistency
or reproducibility of measurements, i.e.
successive readings does not differ.
(Precision is the consistency of the instrument
output for a given value of input).
Accuracy can be improved by calibration but not precision

Sl
No.

Accuracy

Precision

It is the closeness with the It is a measure of

true value of the quantity reproducibility of the
being measured
measurements

The accuracy
of
measurement means
conformity to truth

The term precise means clearly

or sharply defined

Accuracy can be improved

Precision cannot be improved

Accuracy depends upon

simple techniques of analysis

Precision depends upon many

factors and requires many
sophisticated techniques of
analysis.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Resolution: The smallest change in a measured
variable to which an instrument will respond.
Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output
(response) of the instrument to a change of input
or measured variable.
Drift : Gradual shift in the meassured value ,over an
extended period, when there is no change in input.
Threshold: The minimum value of input for which
the device just starts to respond
Range/Span: The minimum and maximum value of
quantity so that the device is capable of measuring

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Repeatability: A measure of how well the output
returns to a given value when the same precise input
is applied several times.
Or
The ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set
of reading within a given accuracy.

Static Performance of Instrument

SYSTEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Range
Span
Linearity
Sensitivity
Environmental effects
Hysteresis
Resolution

Range
The input range defines the minimum and
maximum value of the variable to measure.
The output rage defines the minimum and
maximum value of the signal given by the
transducer.
Assume a temperature transducer which
temperature range is from 100C to 250C and
the output range is given from 4 to 10 mV.

Span

The input span is the maximum change of the input and

the output span is the maximum change of the output.
Input span:

I MAX I MIN
Output span:

OMAX OMIN

Linearity
It is normally desirable
that the output reading
Omax
of an instrument is
linearly proportional to
the quantity being
measured.
An instrument is
Omin
considered if the
relationship between
Imin
output an
input
be
OMAX

Ocan
O fitted
OMIN in a line. MIN I I MIN

I MAX I MIN

Imax

 Non-linearity is defined as the maximum

deviation of the output over the straight line

N by:
I O I K I a
Non-Linearity can be quoted
N max I

100
OMAX OMIN

Maximum % of Non-Linearity :

Sensitivity

The sensitivity of measurement is a measure

of the change in instrument output that occurs
when the quantity being measured changes by
a given amount.
Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:

Environmental effects
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument
are only valid under controlled conditions of
temperature, pressure etc.
These standard ambient conditions are usually
defined in the instrument specification.
As variations occur in the ambient temperature,
etc., certain static instrument characteristics
change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a
measure of the magnitude of this change.
Such environmental changes affect instruments in
two main ways, known as zero drift and sensitivity
drift.
Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative
term, bias.

Instrument Drift

This is caused by variations taking place in the

parts of the instrumentation over time.
Prime sources occur as chemical structural
changes and changing mechanical stresses.
Drift is a complex phenomenon for which the
observed effects are that the sensitivity and offset
values vary.
It also can alter the accuracy of the instrument
differently at the various amplitudes of the signal
present.

Hysteresis and Backlash

Careful observation of the output/input
relationship of a block will sometimes reveal
different results as the signals vary in direction
of the movement.
Mechanical systems will often show a small
difference in length as the direction of the
applied force is reversed.
The same effect arises as a magnetic field is
reversed in a magnetic material.
This characteristic is called hysteresis
Where this is caused by a mechanism that
gives a sharp change, such as caused by the
looseness of a joint in a mechanical joint, it is
easy to detect and is known as backlash.