Kingdom Monera

Kingdom Monera - All the organisms of this kingdom are prokaryotes.

According to R.H. Whittaker's five kingdom classification all the bacteria were placed
under the Kingdom Monera.
Monera are considered as the most primitive group of organisms.

Classification
1. Division Schizopbyta (bacteria)
2. Division Cyanophyta (blue-green algae or cyanobacteria)

General characteristics of the kingdom Monera:

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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

They are primitive organisms.

All organisms of the kingdom are prokaryotes.
They are present in both living and non-living environment.
They can survive in harsh and extreme climatic conditions like in hot springs, acidic soils etc.
They are unicellular organisms.
Membrane bound nucleus is absent.
DNA is in double stranded form, suspended in the cytoplasm of the organism, referred as
nucleoid.
8. A rigid cell wall is present.
9. Membrane bound cellular organelles like mitochondria are absent.
10.Habitat - Monerans are found everywhere in hot springs, under ice, in deep ocean floor, in
deserts and on or inside the body of plants and animals.
11.Nutrition - autotrophs - can prepare their own food, heterotrophs - depend on others for food,
saprophytes - feed on dead and decaying matter, parasitic - live on other host cells for survival
and cause, symbiotic - in mutual relation with other organisms, commensalism - it is where one
organism is benefited and the other is not affected, mutualism - where both the organisms are
benefited, required for their survival(lichens).
12.Respiration - respiration in these organisms vary, they may be obligate aerobes - the organisms
must have organisms for survival; obligate anaerobes - the organisms cannot survive in the
presence of oxygen; facultative anaerobes - these organisms can survive with or without oxygen.
13.Circulation - is through diffusion.
14.Movement - is with the help of flagella.
15.Reproduction is mostly asexual, sexual reproduction is also seen. Asexual reproduction is by
binary fission, sexual reproduction is by conjugation, transformation and transduction.

Structure of bacterial cell:

Bacterial Cell wall

The bacterial cell wall consists of peptidoglycan (or murein), a polymer
consisting of NAG (N-Acetylglucosamine) and NAM (N-Acetylmuramic
Acid) and short chains of amino acids.
1.
2.

3.

Alternating NAG and NAM molecules

form a carbohydrate backbone (the
glycan portion).
Rows of NAG and NAM are linked by
tetrapeptide side chain (peptidoportion), which is consists of 4 amino
acids (L-Al anine, D-Glutamaic acid,
D-Lysin and D-Alanin ) attached to
NAMs.
Cross bridge amino acid- link s peptidoglycan subunits together

NAcetylglucosamin
e (NAG) And
N-Acetylmuramic
Acid (NAM)
Joined As In
Peptidoglycan

Penicillin interferes with peptidoglycan synthesis

Teichoic acid is
copolymers of glycerol
phosphate and
carbohydrates linked via
phosphodiester bonds.
The main function of
teichoic acids is to provide
rigidity to the cell-wall
by attracting cations
such as magnesium and
sodium.

Lipopolysaccharides(LP
S), also known as
lipoglycans and
endotoxins, are large
molecules consisting of
a lipid and a

Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, which is what makes the cell wall rigid.
Peptidoglycan is not very permeable meaning that many small particles cannot pass
through it.
The bacterial cell wall is designed to protect the bacteria from turgor pressure.While plant
cell wall give structural support to the cell, In addition filtering mechanism and also helps

Bacterial Capsule layer

Many prokaryotes secrete another sticky protective layer of

polysaccharide or protein, the capsule, outside the cell
wall
Capsules allow cells to adhere to their substratum
They may increase resistance to host defenses. Therefore, a
capsule often contributes to the ability of bacteria to cause
disease.
They glue together the cells of those prokaryotes that live
as colonies

Bacterial membrane

bacterial plasma membranes lack embedded sterols, such as

cholesterol, but
do contain sterol-like molecules, calledhopanoids
- the hopanoids are crucial part of so-calledmembrane rafts,
which are

Mesosomes
- invaginations of the plasma membrane in form of tubules,
vesicles or lamellae
Function:- role in cell wall formation?
- role in cell division & chromosome replication?
- fixation artifact?

Inclusion bodies - intracellulargranulesof organic or

inorganic material
Function: - storage of important molecules or cell
components, such as:

1.The polysaccharideglycogen - stainable with iodine (= Lugol's

reagent)
2. Gas(e.g. hydrogen gas-containing vesicles) hollow, tubular, "cigarshaped", non-lipid vesicles that play a role in
- cell buoyancy
- are assembled from one protein
- often found in cyanobacteria, Halobacterium
3.Polyphosphate or volutin- reserve material of phosphates, e.g. for
the build up of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA
4.inorganic sulfur(S0)- "left over" waste product observed in many
purple photo synthetic bacteria, e.g.Chromatium vinosum
- they often use H2S as electron donor and store the remaining sulfur
S in granular form

5. - cyanobacteria have unique inclusion calledcyanophycin bodies

are composed of large polypeptides made up from arginine

Cytosolic ribosomes
1. ribosomes are the site of cellular protein synthesis
2. made up from protein and different RNA molecules (= rRNA)
3.they are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes-70S ribosomes
4. are comprised of 2 differently sized sub-units called:
5.30S and 50S units ("S" stands for Svedberg unit)
6.the highly conserved nucleotide sequence of the 16S rRNA
plays an important role in modern phylogenetic analysis
and bacterial taxonomy!
7.Prokaryotic ribosomes are a- slightly smaller than the
eukaryotic version (80S) b- differ in protein and RNA content
8.Note:- Tetracycline and erythromycin
(selective antibiotic to prokaryotes),
bind to ribosomes blocking protein
synthesis in prokaryotes

Bacterial flagella

Many prokaryotes are motile

About half of all prokaryotes are capable of directional
movement
They are slender rigid structures about 20nm across and
up to 15 or 20m long
Some species can move at speeds exceeding 50 m/sec,
about 100 times their body length per second

The flagella of prokaryotes differ in structure and function

from those of eukaryotes made up of flagillin protein
only
In a heterogeneous environment, many prokaryotes are
capable of taxis, movement toward or away from a
stimulus.
Prokaryotes that exhibit chemotaxis respond to chemicals
by changing their movement patterns

Solitary E. coli may exhibit positive chemotaxis toward

other members of their species, enabling the formation of
colonies

Monotrichousbacteria
- have one flagellum
- e.g.Pseudomonas sp.
Lophotrichousbacteria
- have tuft-like cluster of flagella at one or both
ends
- e.g.Spirillum sp.

Amphitrichousbacteria
- have single flagellum at each pole

Peritrichousbacteria
- have flagella all around the cell body
- e.g.Proteus vulgaris

Ultrastructure of the flagellar motor

- thehook
- short curved protein

- abasal body
- embedded into the
cell:

synthesis of flagella is a complex process which involves at least 20

genes

for monotrichous polar and peritrichous flagellated bacteria

--> clockwise rotation of protein motor generates
forward movement;
--> counter clockwise rotation leads to slow down
and tumbling

Piliand fimbriae :Many bacteria are capable to form long cell

protrusions, calledpili(singular: pilus) and shorter cell protrusions
calledfimbriae
- they are found only in some bacterial strains
- pili help the bacteria to attach to surfaces and to make
contact with other bacteria
- fimbriae allow bacteria to make contact and to dock to host
cells
- with the help of so-calledsex pili, bacteria are capable to
efficiently exchange so-called resistance genes(e.g. against the
antibiotics penicillin, streptomycin or tetracycline), many of which
are located on extrachromosomal DNA called plasmids

Mode of nutrition.
Bacteria exhibit different modes of nutrition. On this basis, broadly
two types of bacteria can be recognisedautotrophic
bacteriaandheterotrophic bacteria.
Autotrophic Bacteria:
Anautotrophis an organism able to make its own food.
These bacteria can be distinguished further into two types as follows
Many bacteria carry out photosynthesis, using the energy of sunlight to build
organic molecules from carbon dioxide. The cyanobacteria use chlorophyll a
as the key light-capturing pigment and H2O as an electron donor, releasing
oxygen gas as a by-product. They are therefore oxygenic, and their method
of photosynthesis is very similar to that found in algae and plants

Other bacteria use bacteriochlorophyll as their light-capturing pigment and H2S

an electron donor,
leaving elemental sulfur as the by-product. These bacteria do not produce oxy
(anoxygenic) and
have a simpler method of photosynthesis. These are the purple and green sulfur
bacteria.
For this reason, the process is described as anoxygenic photosynthesis.

Chemosynthetic Bacteria: These are bacteria which manufacture organic

inorganic raw materials utilising energy liberated from the oxidation
Following are the common types of chemo autotrophic bacteria.
Nitrifying bacteria which derive energy by oxidizing
ammonia into nitrates. Eg: Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter.

Sulphur bacteria which derive energy by oxidising hydrogen sulphide

to sulphur. Eg: Thiobacillus, Beggiatoa

Iron Bacteria which derive energy by oxidising ferrous ions into

ferric form. Eg: Ferrobacillus, Gallionella.

Photoheterotrophs: The so-called purple and green nonsulfur bacteria use

light as their source of energy but obtain carbon from organic molecules,
such as carbohydrates or
alcohols that have been produced by other organisms
Chemoheterotrophs.The majority of prokaryotes obtain both carbon atoms
and energy from organic molecules. These include decomposers and most
pathogens.
e.g. Parasitic Bacteria: These are bacteria which occur in the body of animals
and plants, obtaining their organic food from there. Most of these bacteria are
pathogenic, causing serious diseases in the host organisms either by exploiting
them or by releasing poisonous secretions called toxins.
Heterotrophic Bacteria: These are bacteria which are unable to manufacture
their own organic food and hence are dependent on external source.e.G
Saprophytic Bacteria: These bacteria obtain their nutritional requirements from
dead organic matter. They breakdown the complex organic matter into simple
soluble form by secreting exogenous enzymes. Subsequently they absorb the
simple nutrients and assimilate them, during which they release energy. These
bacteria have a significant role in the ecosystem, functioning as
decomposers.
Symbiotic Bacteria: These are bacteria which live in a mutually beneficial
association with other organisms. Such bacteria derive the essential nutrients from
their host organisms and in that process help the host through some of their

Reproduction
Asexual no change in genetic
makeup of daughter cells, all are
identical
Sexual daughter cells are
genetically different than
parents

Binary Fission : Binary fissionis a mode of asexual

reproduction Through which cell
Divides into two half which have the potential to grow to the original.
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DNA replication (time frame is

minutes or hours)
Protein synthesis (~ 40 minutes)
Replication of structures (7
minutes)
Cytoplamic separation &
pinching (7 minutes)
New cell walls form (7 minutes)

Endospore
A number ofgram-positive bacteria, e.g.Bacillus sp.,
Sporosarcina or Clostridia sp., are capable to form a highly
desiccation, cold, disinfectant, heat, and irradiation-resistant
"survival structurecalled anendospore
Theendospore structure is complexand consists of multiple
layers
1.Exosporium(EX)
- thin outer covering
2.Spore coat (SC)
- composed of several protein layers
- impermeable to most toxins and chemicals
3.Cortex (CX)
- occupies most of the spore volume
- made up from a unique, less cross-linked peptidoglycan
4.Spore cell wall or core wall (CW)
- surrounds the protoplast or core
5.Core (Protoplast) (CR)
- is metabolically inactive but contains ribosomes and DNA
(in nucleoid = N)
- contains DNA protecting acid-soluble DNA binding proteins
- is dehydrated (explains high heat resistance)
- contains DNA repair enzymes

Bacterial reproduction: Conjugation by Joshua Lederberg

and Edward Tatum (1946)

Bacterial reproduction: Transduction

ZinderandLederbergin1952
Transductionis the process by which foreign DNA is
introduced into a cell by a virus or viral vector.

Bacterial reproduction: Transformation by Frederick

Griffith (1928)
Transformationis the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from
the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material
(exogenous DNA) from its surroundings through the cell
membrane

Achebacteria
Archaebacteria are microbes that live in extreme and harsh conditions,they are known as extremophiles.
These bacteria lack cell wall, their cell membrane is made up of different lipids, and their ribosomes are
similar to that of eukaryotes.
Methanogens produced
methane
Methanogens are among the
strictest anaerobes and are
poisoned by O2.
Some species live in swamps and
marshes Marsh gas is actually
methane produced by the archaea.
Methanogens are important
decomposers in sewage
treatment.
Other methanogens contribute to
Extreme
thermophiles
thrive in hot
the greenhouse
effect
Extreme halophiles live in
environments.
such salty places as the Great
The optimum temperatures for most
Salt Lake and the Dead Sea.
thermophiles are 60C80C.
require an extremely salty
Sulfolobus oxidizes sulfur in hot sulfur
environment to grow.
springs in Yellowstone National Park.
Colonies of certain extreme
Another sulfur-metabolizing
halophiles form a purple-red
thermophile can survive at
scum
from
temperatures as high as 113C in
bacteriorhodopsin,
a
water near deep-sea hydrothermal
photosynthetic pigment very
vents.
similar to the visual pigment
Pyrococcus furiosus is an extreme
in the human retina.
thermophile that is used in
biotechnology as the source of DNA
polymerase for the polymerase
chain reaction (PCR).

Bacteria- relationship to
man
Economicimportanceofanyorganismreferstotheadvantages
anddisadvantagesofthatorganismtonature,thehumansandthe
environment.Bacteria,aprokaryoteandmicroscopicorganism,
havethefollowingeconomicimportance:

1. Beneficial effects of Bacteria:

Bacteriaplayimportantrolesindifferentfieldssuchasagriculture,industryetc.Someof
themarementionedbelow:
A) Role in agriculture
a)Scavenging Role:Saprophyticbacteriaobtainfoodfromorganicremainssuchas
animalexcreta,fallenleaves,meatetc.Theydecomposethesesubstancesbyactionof
digestiveenzymesaerobicallyoranaerobically(knownasfermentation).Thustheyhelp
insanitationofnature,soalsoknownasscavengers.E.g.Pseudomonas
b)Nitrification:Rhizobiumbacteria,livinginrootnodulesofleguminousplant
symbiotically,helpsinfixingatmosphericnitrogen.
Similarly,NitrosomanasandNitrococcusconvertammoniumsalttonitrites.Nitritesare
furtherchangedtonitratesbyNitrobacterandNitrocystis.Itenablesplantstouptake
nitrogen.
c)Production of Organic Manure: Asstatedabove,saprophyticbacteriahelpin
breakingofcomplexorganicsubstancetosimplerforms.Thus,inthisprocess,theyhelp
toconvertfarmrefuse,dungandotherwastestomanure.
d)Preparation of Ensilage :Ensilageispreservedcattlefodderpreparedbypacking
freshchoppedfoddersprinkledwithmolasses.Fermentationactivityofbacteria
produceslacticacidthatactsaspreservativeinensilage.
e)Production of fuel: Bacteria,whileconvertinganimaldungandotherorganic
wastestomanure,helpinproductionoffuelthatisamustingobargasplant.
f)Disposal of sewage: Bacteriahelpindisposalofsewagebydecomposingitand
thus,helpinenvironmentalsanitation.

B) Role in Industry
a)Dairy Industry: BacteriasuchasStreptococcuslactisconvertmilksugarlactose
intolacticacidthatcoagulatescasein(milkprotein).Then,milkisconvertedinto
curd,yoghurt,cheeseetcneededfortheindustry.
b)Production of Organic Compounds: Fermentation(breakdownofcarbohydrate
inabsenceofoxygen)actionofvariousbacteriaproducesorganiccompoundslike
lacticacid(byLactobacillus),aceticacid(byAcetobacteraceti),acetone
(byClostridiumacetabutylicum)etc.
c)Fibre Retting: TheactionofsomebacterialikeClostridium,
Pseudomonasetc.helpinfibrerettingi.e.separationofstemandleaffibreofplants
fromothersoftertissue.
d)Curing: Theleavesofteaandtobacco,beansofcoffeeandcocaarecuredoff
theirbitternesswiththehelpofactionofcertainbacteriasuchasBacillus
megatherium.
e)Production of Antibiotics: Numberofantibacterialandantifungalantibiotics
suchasHamycin,Polymyxin,Trichomycinetcareobtainedfrommyceliabacteria
(likeStreptomyces).Similarly,Bacillusisusedforproductionofantibioticssuchas
Bacitracin,Gramicidinetc
f)Production of Vitamins: Differentkindsofvitaminsareproducedfrombacteria
likeRiboflavinfromClostridiumbutylicum,VitaminB12fromBacillus
megatheriumandVitaminKandB-complexfromEscherichiacoli.

3.. Harmful effects of Bacteria:

Thoughbacteriaplaysimportantroleinagriculture,industriesandnaturalsanitationetc,it
hasthefollowingharmfuleffects:
a)Food Spoiling: Saprophyticbacteriaalwaysnotonlyhelpindecompositionofdead
matters,buttheyalsocausetherottingofvegetables,fruits,meat,breadetc.
b)Food Poisoning: BacterialikeStaphylococcusaureuscausefoodpoisoningand
causepeoplediarrheaandvomiting.
c)Damaging of domestic articles: Spirochetecytophagadeterioratescotton,leather
andwoodenarticles.
d)Denitrification: BacteriasuchasThiobacillusandMicrobacillusconvertnitrateofthe
soiltothegaseousnitrogen.Thishampersplantsverymuch.
e)Desulphurication: BacteriasuchasDesulfovibrioconvertsoilsulphatesinto
hydrogensulphide.
f)Cause of Diseases: Itisknownthatover90%ofhumandiseasesandover10%of
plantdiseasesarecausedbybacteria.