Theory Lesson - Week 6 Term 3

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ACHPER (SA)
2014
Practice and feedback Practice

In conclusion a number of factors affect the type of feedback
provided:
Cognitive development of the learner
Emotional development of the learner
Personality of the learner
Motivation of the learner
Learners knowledge of the task
Coaches ability to demonstrate
The means (video, computer, data, stats) available to provide
the
feedback.
Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
Practice and Feedback - Feedback

Case Study The effect of feedback on skill execution
Two high school students were set the task of taking 10 free throws in basketball.
Each one was given a 2 minute rest after each throw. The difference between the
students was the type of feedback provided as can be seen in the graph below.
(Student As results are in black and Student B are in yellow).
18
16
16
between the two feedback
15
14
types provided.
12
12
Points scored.
10
6
4
process.
5
4
3
2.5
3
2
2
2
Practice Trials
Knowledge of results
Identify the student who was

more successful.
0
1
Answer = One focuses on

results one focuses on the
Explain the difference
Konwledge of results and performance

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Answer = The one who

used knowledge of results
and performance.
ACHPER (SA)
2014
Practice and Feedback - Feedback

Case Study The effect of feedback on skill execution
Two high school students were set the task of taking 10 free throws in basketball.
Each one was given a 2 minute rest after each throw. The difference between the
students was the type of feedback provided as can be seen in the graph below.
(Student As results are in black and Student B are in yellow).
Explain how the difference in
18
16
16
14
8
6
4
better performing student.
12
12
Points scored.
10
4
2.5
5
3
provides better insight in to

2
how they performed.
0
1
Answer = The use of both

performance and outcome
feedback may have helped the
15
3
4
Practice Trials
Knowledge of results
Konwledge of results and performance
Student A was provided with

continuous feedback whilst Student
B was not. Explain how this would

Answer = The use of continuous feedback provided feedback throughout the
have impacted on the results.
execution of the skill and allowed the player to benefit from this DURING the
performance.
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
Slide Set 3
Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors
Affecting Learning
Sub-Concept 3 Environmental factors
ACHPER (SA)
2014
Environmental factors
Environmental means so many things!
The diagram below divides the broad idea of environmental factors into specific
groups:
(a) Physical /
Natural factors
Elements of weather
e.g. wind, rain, heat
(b) Manufactured
/ man made
factors
(c)
Psychological /
Emotional factors
Equipment used during

rehearsal / practice and
games
Facilities
Facilities and
and their
their
condition
condition used
used in
in
rehearsal
rehearsal // practice
practice and
and
games
Elements of terrain or
land e.g. Type of
ground surface being
used, rocky, hilly
Rules of the activity and

their use in learning
activities employed

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Anxiety and stress

situations in
situations
in training
training and
and
practice
practice or
or games
games
Goals
Goals // expectations
expectations in
in
training and
training
and practice
practice or
or
games
Coach / instructor
personality / type
Personality of the
learner
Emotional factors
ACHPER (SA)
2014
Case Study The impact of positive reinforcement on performance
The graph below, highlights the impact of positive reinforcement on the occurrence of
a skill in the game of volleyball related to the defensive skill of blocking.
The team was a junior high school team who had been playing for a number of months.
The net was raised (higher than normal) to increase players jumping ability when
blocking.
12
For 12 minutes during a practice match the
11
Observation of training (minutes)
10
skill of early hand preparation for blocking
was observed
8
7
Noticeable that during minutes 4 and 8 the
occurrence of high hands was greatest.
5
4
At this stage the coach reinforced and
constantly reminded players to have high
hands in a positive manner (continuous
1
0
10
Frequency of Occurrence (number per minute)
12 information).
The Occurrence of High Hands During Defence Preparation.
During other times the coach sat on the

bench saying little, and often appeared
annoyed through his body language, at the

level of blocking defence displayed.
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
Case Study The impact of positive reinforcement on performance
Explain how the coach sitting down and looking annoyed would have
impacted on the players from an emotional environmental sense.
Answer = The annoyed body language would have created a
negative environment
and may have led to players developing negative thoughts
affecting performance.
Explain how the coach s direct involvement in the game changed the
environment of the game.
Answer = The positive reinforcement allowed the players to not

only focus on the essential factors of technique, better execution
from this would have made them feel positive and reflected in
better performance.

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Affecting Learning
Sub-Concept 4 The characteristics of the
learner
ACHPER (SA)
2014
Characteristics of the learner
Learners at all stages of development related to skill execution possess unique qualities
that impact on their ability to execute and learn skills.
Diagram below illustrates a number of key factors that are essential when considering
the characteristics of the learner:
Fitness
level
Cognitive
capacity
Gender
Age
Culture
CHARACTERISTI
CS
OF THE
LEARNER

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Maturity
(psychologi
cal
developme
nt)
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Age
One of the key characteristics related to the learning of skills is the age of
the learner.
Especially relevant to younger learners or children.
Some essential characteristics of young learner affecting skill development

and learning is seen below.
These are
especially
important to
skill learning
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Gender
Also has an impact on learning.
Physical and physiological differences can be a factor as well as psychological

differences as seen below:
Physiological
Differences
Males have greater muscle volume than females - and

are therefore stronger
Females have smaller lungs and hearts than males
Females have smaller muscle fibres than male.
Males have bigger bodies with longer legs than females
Females have bigger elbows and knees than males
Females have wider hips and smaller shoulders than
males
Psychological
Differences
Females develop psychological stress faster during

competition than males
Males are harder to motivate than females
Females lose their fear of losing faster than males
Females hope for success is greater than males
Females are easier to motivate based on their own
performance than males
Males emotions don't fluctuate as frequently as females,
which can be traced to hormonal differences

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Fitness levels
Conditioning also affects the ability of people to learn and execute skills.
Learners who are better conditioned will stay on task longer because they
can
(a) concentrate for longer and
(b) resist fatigue for longer periods.
This will vary with the age and development of the learner.
Image courtesy of stockimages /

FreeDigitalPhotos.net

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ACHPER (SA)
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Cognitive capacity
Cognitive capacity is the learners ability to know what to do and how to do it.
Essentially perception, memory, judgement and reasoning the act of thinking.
Age, experience and development will affect this.
Older or more experience learners can complete skills more effectively and
consistently because they can handle more information at any one time
They can also utilise better, more complex problem solving skills when needed
Culture
Different cultures have different ethical, moral and value systems.
In some work ethic and desire to succeed is stronger than others.
Ideologies, religion and tradition can impact on the level of skill learning.
Kenyans dominate distance running because the activity has a place of

prominence in their country.

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Psychological development (maturity)
As learners become more experienced they also become better in relation to their
psychological capabilities.
With experience and development learners cope better with pressure and anxiety.
Can focus on key facets related to skill learning and execution better such as tactical
implications. Some of these qualities seen below in young learners.

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Affecting Learning
Sub-Concept 5 The retention of learning
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
The retention of learning
The brain processes a lot of information at any given time.
It has to make a choice as to what is important to keep and what isnt.
If the brain didnt do this it would soon become clogged with a mixture of very
important and totally useless information.
The brain has the capacity to hold a million gigabytes of information - the equivalent
of downloading 3 hours of TV!
The brain has a very organised system for filtering important information from
unimportant information
Its storage system only retains what is needed.
Has a system for getting rid of information that is no longer needed.
In skill learning and execution the connection between the brain and muscles is
important.
The link
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
In skill learning and execution the connection between the brain and muscles is
important.
The whole brain system has to be involved to:
Store
Informati
on
Retrieve
Informati
on
Use
Informati
on
About what
to do
Getting the
information
when it is
needed
Using the
information
for what has
to be done

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ACHPER (SA)
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But how does the brain filter and organise the thousands of pieces of information?
The diagram below shows the process:

Selective
Information (stimuli)
is received
watching, listening and
doing, using the senses
SENSORY INFORMATION STORE

(SIS)
Is the first filter
Information held very briefly - about 55
secs!
Information ONLY kept if used via practice
or repetition
A lot of information is discarded
attention assists
Information that
survives the SIS
process moves to
the ....
Information that is
used during the STMS
through repetition or
practice moves into
the....
information in
relation to skill
execution.
There are two specific types of memory (a) Explicit = available consciously
like remembering someones name and there are (b) Implicit = use of
objects or movements of the body.
LONG TERM MEMORY STORE
(LTMS)
This memory store is unlimited
and not restricted by time
in processing
SHORT TERM MEMORY STORE

(STMS)
The second filter
has a limited capacity and
can only hold information for
10 seconds - about 7 12
bits
----------------------Allows the
learner to
develop a good
Declarative
Declarative knowledge the ability to carry the action through or do the

technique or skill.

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knowledge.
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Learning can be facilitated by techniques such as:
Rhyming
Chunking
Involves word
patterns
Brain likes this
format
Uses self talk
Popular method
Breaks down
long, complex
information in to
smaller bits.
Visualisatio
n
Uses imagery and
imagination
Links memory of
information to
pictures which
allows association
memory.
Technique
s used to
promote
memory
Repetition
Can be the MOST
effective
Involves
repeating
something over
and over again.
Good for skills

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ACHPER (SA)
2014
Case Study Memory and recall in sport
The diagram below shows all the information a cricket player needs to
remember to play the shot illustrated.
There is a lot of information that

needs to be acted on to complete
the shot illustrated above.
Imagine if the player had to

remember all that every time they
played it!
Describe the effect of all this
information on the memory
process.
Answer = Slows the process

down a lot of information to
handle at once remember

single channel hypothesis!
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
Case Study Memory and recall in sport
Identify a method that could be used in helping the player commit all this
information to memory.
Answer = Rhyming is a good one.
Explain how it would work.
Using a phrase like step and hit is often used to consolidate all this
information into a skill execution routine.
The brain uses the phrase to trigger so to speak all the motor
programs needed to do the technique.
All the components of the technique were committed to

memory using repetition

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Affecting Learning
Sub-Concept 6 Timing and anticipation
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
Timing and Anticipation
Timing = when all the components of a skill technique subroutine are successfully linked together.
Occur in the correct order and flow smoothly.
Involves a time element where all the actions of a technique

are executed (done) where all parts of the technique come to a
maximal execution point.
For example in a tennis serve :

= ball toss + racquet swing + shift of body weight
occur in a sequence that

allows the ball to be hit in the best position (in
the air) with power and
accuracy to allow best possible outcome = serve in!
All the necessary movements (sub-routines) need to have

been completed in a smooth sequence.

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ACHPER (SA)
2014
A number of factors affect timing.
These are seen below:
Physical
Factors
These factors
relate to body
movements and
technique required
by the skill
Psychologic
al Factors
These factors
require mental
preparation and
involvement in the
execution of the
skill.
The psychological ones occur before the physiological ones.

For example in the skill execution model input always occurs before the decision
making and output emphasising this point.
The faster the process of thinking the better decisions and outcomes can be expected especially when time is limited.

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ACHPER (SA)
2014
2 key elements affect the psychological aspect of skill execution:
Reaction time
Is the time between receiving a stimulus (information) and the time taken to initiate a
response to that stimulus.
There is a delay time in this process based on processing demands that is how long it
takes to make a decision on what to do.
The more information to be processed the slower the reaction time.
A number of factors affect reaction time these can be seen below:

The number of
Stimulus Response
Options
The less things the
player has to attend
to, the faster the
reaction time
The Stimulus
Response
Compatibility
The more natural the
response to a
stimulus the faster it
will be e.g.: catching
a ball on your right
side with your right
hand.

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The amount of
Practice and
Experience Developed
The more practice
done in relation to
situations needing
well developed
reaction time, the
faster it will be
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
2 key elements affect the psychological aspect of skill execution:
Anticipation
A number of factors
affect it as seen here
Can be defined as an educated

guess on what is going to happen
Internal
Factors
Fatigue - interferes with the ability to detect stimuli

or cues
Anxiety - interferes with the ability to detect stimuli
or cues
Pain- interferes with the ability to detect cues or
stimuli because focus is taken from the task
Distraction - interferes with the ability to detect
cues or stimuli by diverting attention away from
where it should be
External
Factors
Position of the opponent - many try to disguise

what they area about to use by making early
movements unrelated to the action - e.g.: fake pass
Spectators - interfere in distracting attention from
where it should be
The score - interferes with focus and attention to
relevant stimuli
Time - also takes attention and focus away from
important focal points
at any point in a game.
Athletes with good anticipation

use or detect practical cues to
decide what to do or predict
what will happen.
In effect they reduce the time

taken to respond to a stimulus.
Some refer to this as an

educated guess and it is
developed through practice
experience.
Key and
Concept
3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
Good anticipation carries both positive and negative outcomes

(possibilities):
ves
The best methods employed to prevent someone from anticipating actions is

to:
(a) be unpredictable (b) disguise your actions and (c) make

response random
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ACHPER (SA)
2014
Timing and anticipation

Case Study Hicks Law and reaction time
Hicks Law or what some refer to as Hick-Hyman Law was developed by British
Psychologists to describe the time it takes for a person to make a decision as a result
of a number of possible choices presented.
The amount of time taken to process the specific bits of information is referred to as
the rate of gain of information.
They postulated the theory based around this formula where n is the number of
choices.
THE
ESSENTIAL
ingredients
How long it takes How long it takes

to move
to process information

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

In other words reaction was based around processing information that then
would affect movement time.
This can be seen in the diagram below:
0.7
Choice Reaction Time (seconds)
Describe the relationship seen in

the graph.
0.6
0.5
Answer = The greater the

number of responses
0.4
required the slower the
0.3
reaction time.
0.2
Explain the effect 10 stimulus

responses would have on choice
0.1
1
Number of responses to stimulus available
reaction time of a skill learner.
10
Answer = Causes the slowest

reaction time 0.7 seconds.

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

0.7
Choice Reaction Time (seconds)
Describe how a high number of

stimulus-response alternatives would
0.6
impact on the performance of a player
0.5
in a sport of your choice
0.4
Answer = basically the answer

needs to mention the fewer the
0.3
responses the faster the reaction
0.2
and the better success at doing
0.1
1
10
Number of responses to stimulus available
the skill. e.g. : cricket the less

stimulus the faster the response.
In a game like this the batter is
Describe a technique that could be used by a able

playertotodo
decrease
the
number of
a faster
response
to
stimulus responses in a sporting situation.
say a bowler and increase the
Answer = see slide 45 in the environmental

factors
for anresponse.
answer that
success
of their
could be applied here.

Text Pages 47

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1

Practice and feedback Practice

Practice and Feedback - Feedback

between the two feedback

Identify the student who was

Answer = One focuses on

Explain the difference

Konwledge of results and performance

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Answer = The one who

Practice and Feedback - Feedback

better performing student.

provides better insight in to

how they performed.

Answer = The use of both

feedback may have helped the

Student A was provided with

B was not. Explain how this would

Environmental means so many things!

Equipment used during

Rules of the activity and

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Anxiety and stress

For 12 minutes during a practice match the

skill of early hand preparation for blocking

Noticeable that during minutes 4 and 8 the

occurrence of high hands was greatest.

At this stage the coach reinforced and

constantly reminded players to have high

hands in a positive manner (continuous

Frequency of Occurrence (number per minute)

The Occurrence of High Hands During Defence Preparation.

During other times the coach sat on the

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Answer = The annoyed body language would have created a

Answer = The positive reinforcement allowed the players to not

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors

Characteristics of the learner

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Characteristics of the learner

Especially relevant to younger learners or children.

Some essential characteristics of young learner affecting skill development

Characteristics of the learner

Also has an impact on learning.

Physical and physiological differences can be a factor as well as psychological

Males have greater muscle volume than females - and

Females develop psychological stress faster during

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Characteristics of the learner

Image courtesy of stockimages /

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Characteristics of the learner

Essentially perception, memory, judgement and reasoning the act of thinking.

Age, experience and development will affect this.

Different cultures have different ethical, moral and value systems.

In some work ethic and desire to succeed is stronger than others.

Kenyans dominate distance running because the activity has a place of

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Characteristics of the learner

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors

The retention of learning