Chapter 1 Part A

The Human
Body: An
Orientation

Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

PowerPoint Lecture Slides

prepared by
Karen Dunbar Kareiva
Ivy Tech Community College

Why This Matters

Learning and understanding anatomical
terminology allows you to communicate
accurately with your colleagues in the health
sciences.

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1.1 Form and Function of Anatomy &

Physiology
Anatomy
Study of the structure of body parts and their
relationship to one another

Physiology
Study of the function of body parts; how they
work to carry out life-sustaining activities

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Topics of Anatomy
Subdivisions of anatomy:
Gross or macroscopic anatomy is the study of
large, visible structures
Regional anatomy looks at all structures in a particular
area of the body
System anatomy looks at just one system
(cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, etc.)
Surface anatomy looks at internal structures as they
relate to overlying skin (visible muscle masses or
veins seen on surface)

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Topics of Anatomy (cont.)

Subdivisions (cont.)
Microscopic anatomy deals with structures too
small to be seen by naked eye
Cytology: microscopic study of cells
Histology: microscopic study of tissues

Developmental anatomy studies anatomical

and physiological development throughout life
Embryology: study of developments before birth

To study anatomy, one must know anatomical

terminology and be able to observe, manipulate,
palpate, and auscultate
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Topics of Physiology
Subdivisions of physiology
Based on organ systems (e.g., renal or
cardiovascular physiology)
Often focuses on cellular and molecular levels of
the body
Looks at how the bodys abilities are dependent on
chemical reactions in individual cells

To study physiology, one must understand basic

physical principles (e.g., electrical currents,
pressure, and movement) as well as basic
chemical principles
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Complementarity of Structure and Function

Anatomy and physiology are inseparable
Function always reflects structure
What a structure can do depends on its specific
form
Known as the principle of complementarity of
structure and function

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1.2 Structural Organization

Human body is very organized, from the
smallest chemical level to whole organism level:
Chemical level: atoms, molecules, and organelles
Cellular level: single cell
Tissue level: groups of similar cells
Organ level: contains two or more types of
tissues
Organ system level: organs that work closely
together
Organismal level: all organ systems combined to
make the whole organism
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Slide 1

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.

Atoms

Organelle

Molecule

Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level
Atoms combine to form
molecules.

Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.

Cardiovascular
system
Heart
Blood
vessels

Smooth muscle tissue

Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar types
of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different
types of tissues.

Organismal level
The human organism is made
up of many organ systems.
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Organ system level

Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.

Slide 2

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.

Atoms

Chemical level
Atoms combine to form
molecules.

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Molecule

Slide 3

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.

Atoms

Molecule

Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level
Atoms combine to form
molecules.

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Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.

Slide 4

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.

Atoms

Molecule

Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level
Atoms combine to form
molecules.

Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.

Smooth muscle tissue

Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar types
of cells.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Slide 5

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.

Atoms

Molecule

Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level
Atoms combine to form
molecules.

Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.

Smooth muscle tissue

Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar types
of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different
types of tissues.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Slide 6

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.

Atoms

Organelle

Molecule

Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level
Atoms combine to form
molecules.

Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.

Cardiovascular
system
Heart
Blood
vessels

Smooth muscle tissue

Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar types
of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different
types of tissues.

Organ system level

Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.
2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Slide 7

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.

Atoms

Organelle

Molecule

Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level
Atoms combine to form
molecules.

Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.

Cardiovascular
system
Heart
Blood
vessels

Smooth muscle tissue

Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar types
of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different
types of tissues.

Organismal level
The human organism is made
up of many organ systems.
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Organ system level

Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.

1.3 Requirements for Life

Necessary Life Functions
Maintenance of life involves:
Maintaining boundaries
Movement
Responsiveness
Digestion
Metabolism
Excretion
Reproduction
Growth
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Necessary Life Functions

Maintaining boundaries
Separation between internal and external
environments must exist
Plasma membranes separate cells
Skin separates organism from environment

Movement
Muscular system allows movement
Of body parts via skeletal muscles
Of substances via cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth
muscle (digestion, urination)
Contractility refers to movement at the cellular level
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Necessary Life Functions (cont.)

Responsiveness
Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
Withdrawal reflex prevents injury
Control of breathing rate, which must change in
response to different activities

Digestion
Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by
absorption of simple molecules into blood

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Necessary Life Functions (cont.)

Metabolism
All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
Sum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and
anabolism (synthesis of molecules)

Excretion
Removal of wastes from metabolism and
digestion
Urea (from breakdown of proteins), carbon dioxide
(from metabolism), feces (unabsorbed foods)

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Necessary Life Functions (cont.)

Reproduction
At the cellular level, reproduction involves
division of cells for growth or repair
At the organismal level, reproduction is the
production of offspring

Growth
Increase in size of a body part or of organism

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Necessary Life Functions (cont.)

Humans are multicellular, so to function,
individual cells must be kept alive
Organ systems are designed to service the cells
All cells depend on organ systems to meet their
survival needs

There are 11 organ systems that work together

to maintain life

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Figure 1.2 Examples of interrelationships among body organ systems.

Digestive system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them
down, and eliminates unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Food

Respiratory system
Takes in oxygen and
eliminates carbon dioxide
O2

CO2

Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs
Blood

Heart
Nutrients
Interstitial fluid

CO2
O2

Urinary system
Eliminates
nitrogenous
wastes and
excess ions

Nutrients and wastes pass

between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid

Feces
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Integumentary system
Protects the body as a whole Urine
from the external environment

Figure 1.3a The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Hair
Skin

Nails

Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering, and
protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses
cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
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Figure 1.3b The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Bones

Joint

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Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs,
and provides a framework the muscles
use to cause movement. Blood cells
are formed within bones. Bones store
minerals.

Figure 1.3c The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Skeletal
muscles

Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and facial
expression. Maintains posture, and
produces heat.
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Figure 1.3d The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Brain

Spinal
cord

Nerves

Nervous System
As the fast-acting control system of
the body, it responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
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Figure 1.3e The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Pineal gland

Thyroid
gland

Pituitary
gland

Thymus
Adrenal
gland
Pancreas

Testis
Ovary

Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use
(metabolism) by body cells.
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Figure 1.3f The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Heart

Blood
vessels

Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.
The heart pumps blood.
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Figure 1.3g The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Red bone
marrow

Thymus
Lymphatic
vessels
Thoracic
duct

Spleen

Lymph
nodes
Lymphatic System/Immunity
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and
returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells
(lymphocytes) involved in immunity.
The immune response mounts the attack
against foreign substances within the body.
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Figure 1.3h The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea

Bronchus

Lung

Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen
and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous
exchanges occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
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Figure 1.3i The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Oral cavity
Esophagus

Liver
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine

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Rectum
Anus

Digestive System
Breaks down food into absorbable units
that enter the blood for distribution to
body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are
eliminated as feces.

Figure 1.3j The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Kidney
Ureter

Urinary
bladder
Urethra

Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body.
Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.
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Figure 1.3k The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Prostate

Penis
Testis

Ductus
deferens
Scrotum

Male Reproductive System

Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce
sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands
aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development
of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to
nourish the newborn.
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Figure 1.3l The bodys organ systems and their major functions.

Mammary
glands (in
breasts)

Ovary

Uterus
Vagina

Uterine
tube

Female Reproductive System

Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce
sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands
aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development
of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to
nourish the newborn.

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Survival Needs
Humans need several factors for survival that
must be in the appropriate amounts; too much
or too little can be harmful:
Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Normal body temperature
Appropriate atmospheric pressure

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Survival Needs (cont.)

Nutrients
Chemicals for energy and cell building

Carbohydrates: major source of energy

Proteins: needed for cell building and cell chemistry
Fats: long-term energy storage
Minerals and vitamins: involved in chemical reactions
as well as for structural purposes

Oxygen
Essential for release of energy from foods
The body can survive only a few minutes without
oxygen
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Survival Needs (cont.)

Water
Most abundant chemical in body; provides the
watery environment needed for chemical
reactions
Also is fluid base for secretions and excretions

Normal body temperature

If body temp falls below or goes above 37C,
rates of chemical reactions are affected

Appropriate atmospheric pressure

Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate
breathing and gas exchange in lungs
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1.4 Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively
stable internal conditions despite continuous
changes in environment
A dynamic state of equilibrium, always
readjusting as needed
Maintained by contributions of all organ systems

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Homeostatic Controls
Body must constantly be monitored and
regulated to maintain homeostasis
Nervous and endocrine systems, as well as
other systems, play a major role in maintaining
homeostasis
Variables are factors that can change (blood
sugar, body temperature, blood volume, etc.)

Homeostatic control of variables involves three

components: receptor, control center, and
effector
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Homeostatic Controls (cont.)

Receptor (sensor)
Monitors environment
Responds to stimuli (things that cause changes
in controlled variables)

Control center
Determines set point at which variable is
maintained
Receives input from receptor
Determines appropriate response

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Homeostatic Controls (cont.)

Effector
Receives output from control center
Provides the means to respond
Response either reduces stimulus (negative
feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive
feedback)

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Homeostatic Controls (cont.)

Negative feedback
Most-used feedback mechanism in body
Response reduces or shuts off original stimulus
Variable changes in opposite direction of initial change

Examples
Regulation of body temperature (a nervous system
mechanism)
Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an endocrine
system mechanism)

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Homeostatic Controls (cont.)

Example of negative feedback:
Receptors sense increased blood glucose (blood
sugar)
Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into
the blood
Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to absorb
more glucose, which decreases blood glucose
levels

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Slide 1

Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.

Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.

2 Receptor

Receptor

Control
Center
Afferent
pathway

Efferent
pathway

4 Output: Information

sent along efferent

pathway to effector.

Effector

5 Response

detects change.

11 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.

IM
BA
LA
NC
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BALANCE

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BA
LA

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NC
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Slide 2

Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.

11 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E
BALANCE

IM
BA
LA

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NC
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Slide 3

Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.

2 Receptor

Receptor

detects change.

11 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E
BALANCE

IM
BA
LA

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NC
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Slide 4

Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.

Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.

2 Receptor

Receptor

Control
Center
Afferent
pathway

detects change.

11 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E
BALANCE

IM
BA
LA

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

NC
E

Slide 5

Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.

Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.

2 Receptor

Receptor

Control
Center
Afferent
pathway

Efferent
pathway

4 Output: Information

sent along efferent

pathway to effector.

Effector

detects change.

11 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E
BALANCE

IM
BA
LA

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

NC
E

Slide 6

Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.

Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.

2 Receptor

Receptor

Control
Center
Afferent
pathway

Efferent
pathway

4 Output: Information

sent along efferent

pathway to effector.

Effector

5 Response

detects change.

11 Stimulus

produces
change in
variable.

of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.

IM
BA
LA
NC
E
BALANCE

IM
BA
LA

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

NC
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Figure 1.5 Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.

Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Afferent
pathway

Efferent
pathway

Receptors
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain

Effectors
Sweat glands
Sweat glands activated

Body temperature
rises

Response
Evaporation of sweat
Body temperature falls;
stimulus ends

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BALANCE

Stimulus: Heat

Stimulus: Cold
Response
Body temperature rises;
stimulus ends

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Receptors
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain

Effectors
Skeletal muscles

Shivering begins

Efferent
pathway

Afferent
pathway

Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
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Body temperature
falls

Homeostatic Controls (cont.)

Positive feedback
Response enhances or exaggerates the original
stimulus
May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect as
feedback causes variable to continue in same
direction as initial change
Usually controls infrequent events that do not
require continuous adjustment, for example:
Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
Platelet plug formation and blood clotting

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Slide 1

Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.

1 Break or tear

occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

2 Platelets

3 Released
chemicals
attract more
platelets.

Positive
feedback
loop

adhere to site
and release
chemicals.

Feedback cycle ends

when plug is formed.

44 Platelet plug

is fully formed.

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Slide 2

Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.

1 Break or tear

occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Slide 3

Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.

1 Break or tear

occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

2 Platelets
adhere to site
and release
chemicals.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Slide 4

Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.

1 Break or tear

occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

2 Platelets

3 Released
chemicals
attract more
platelets.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Positive
feedback
loop

adhere to site
and release
chemicals.

Slide 5

Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.

1 Break or tear

occurs in blood
vessel wall.

Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.

2 Platelets

3 Released
chemicals
attract more
platelets.

Positive
feedback
loop

adhere to site
and release
chemicals.

Feedback cycle ends

when plug is formed.

44 Platelet plug

is fully formed.

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Homeostatic Imbalance
Disturbance of homeostasis
Increases risk of disease
Contributes to changes associated with aging
Control systems become less efficient

If negative feedback mechanisms become

overwhelmed, destructive positive feedback
mechanisms may take over
Heart failure

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.