PSTN PLMN

Modern Wireless Technology
Professional Training Program
Prof. Hesham ElBadawy

IEEE Senior Member
ITU Academia Member
Prof. & Head of Network Planning Dept
Executive Manager for Mobile BTS Auditing Project,
National Telecommunication Institute
Modern Wireless Technology Track
Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN)
Topics in PSTN
Introduction
review of early
exchanges
PSTN Standards
User services & terminals
Trunk Network
Node 1
Node 2
Access
Access
Node 3
Terminals
Modern exchange technology
interface standards
access and trunk networks
signaling
network management
internetworking (telecommunications between networks)
Terminals
Introduction
PSTN switching is based on circuit switching by duplex* connections
Temporary bidirectional connections
Originally for speech (voice) only at 300-3400 Hz
Earlier two subscribers connected by purely physical connection
(physical switch contacts)
Digital networks as ISDN uses time slots (ISDN is integrated to PSDN)
PCM is the TDM standard for the digital transmission
PCM time slots consist of 8 bit samples
For voice digital exchange sets up DS0 0r E0 64 kbit/s connections
Data connections by (1) modems, (2) ISDN interface
(3) leased lines via X.25 / Frame relay, or (4) ADSL
Voice Communication
Concepts and Technology

Modified by Masud-ul-Hasan and
Objectives
Investigate PSTN.
Study and understand digital voice communication and
digitization.
Alternatives of PSTN.
Understand PBXs (Private Branch eXchange).
Understand CTI (Computer Telephony Integration) and
voice services.
Introduce wireless voice transmission services.
GOAL: Study the business behind voice communication.
Voice Network Concepts

Telephone calls are connected from source via circuit
switching.
Circuit switching originally meant that a physical electrical
circuit was created from the source to the destination.
The modern telephone system is commonly known as the
Public Switched Telephone Network or PSTN.
Basic Concepts
Voice consists of sound waves of varying frequency and
amplitude.
The transmitter (mouthpiece) part of phone handset converts
voice into electrical signals to be transmitted onto the analog
network.
The receiver (earpiece) part of a handset works the opposite
of the transmitter i.e., converts electrical signals into voice
that received from the analog network.
Electromagnet
Speaker diaphragm
Receiver
(moveable)
(earpiece)
Sound Waves
Getting Voice Onto

& Off the Network
Permanent magnet
Variable magnetic field

Electrical contacts
Handset
Diaphragm (moveable)
Transmitter
(mouthpiece)
4 Wires
Sound Waves
Granulated carbon
RJ-11
connectors
RJ-22 connector
2 wires
RJ-22 connector
Basic Concepts
POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) employs analog
transmissions to deliver voice signals from source to
destination.
POTS uses a bandwidth of 4000 Hz, but guardbands limit
the useable range to 300-3400 Hz.
Channels are separated by "guardbands" (empty spaces)
to ensure that each channel will not interfere with its
neighboring channels.
Today, the local loop is still analog, but high-capacity
digital circuits typically link the exchanges or Central
Offices (COs).
10
Voice Bandwidth
Human
ear range
is from
20Hz to
20KHz.
But due to this

limited bandwidth,
people sound less
lifelike on the
telephone than in
person.
11
History
1876 A. G. Bell telephone patent
1878 The first exchange constructed in La Porte, the US
could connect any two of the 21 subscribers
manual switching (!)
each user has its own selector

no concentrators
expensive
via selectors
1891 first automatic exchange: Strowger Switch by Almon B.

Strowger: an undertaker in Kansas City
A 100 line Strowger switch:
Strowger switch
From History
In 1886, this 50-line
magneto
switchboard, made
by Bell Telephone of
Canada, was used to
switch voice calls in
small localities.
These instruments
were the beginning
of the worldwide
PSTN. (Image courtesy of
Nortel Networks.)
13
From History
At the turn of the
20th century, Blake
wall phone . (Image
courtesy of Nortel Networks.)
14
An early analog PBX: 100 subscriber exchange ( Subscriber controlled call set-
up)
LS1
10
CF1
GS1
A-subs.
B-subs.
10
CF10
GS10
LS10
MAIN PARTS:
- Call finders (CF)
- Group selectors (GS)
- Line selectors (LS)
Call setup:
1. A-sub. picks up handset (CF detects)
- exchange sends line available -tone
2. A-sub. Send pulses (GS, LS activated)
- exchange sends ringing tone
An early exchange, call setup

One of the 100 subscribers lifts his handset
Call finder is activated to search the line.
After the line is located other relays connect the dial-tone

generator.
The subscriber selects two digits.
The first digit selects the subscriber group by using the group selector.
The second digit selects the line selector.
Selection is done by sending pulses that move the selectors

stepwise.
When connection is established a ringing tone is sent.
Note that only 10 subscribers of 100 can call at the same time to
different numbers! (why?) (concentration is 1:10)
Register-controlled setup (1920 -)

B-subscriber number receiver by a register
register controls all the remaining call setup stages
Distributed control
Markers indicate idle switches
Thus markers control path routing
1960 and before
Efficient use of switches
PSTN exchange development
Stored program control, 1960s and 1970s (SPC)

supervision (operation & maintenance O&M)
integrated charging
gathering statistics
IN services
Easier updating and maintenance
SPC era
More flexibility
& services
New services
Categorizing switching
SPC: Stored program control

NationalHUT
Telecommunication
Institute
Comms Lab.,
Timo O. Korhonen
Some features in PSTN of 60

Coil loading was used to enhance higher frequency range
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) with single sideband (SSB)

modulation was used in trunk networks
Some features of PSTN of 60 (cont.)

Network intelligence and value-added services
not supported as such
operators were anyhow intelligent :)
value added services by tracking what happens in the area!
Inter-exchange signaling
call setup took about 15 seconds
channel-associated signaling (CAS: No.5, R1,R2*)
about 10% of trunk line capacity was taken by signaling
Operation and maintenance

using local info-bases and local workforce
network maintenance was based on on-field check-ups
*nowadays in ISDN & PLMN: common channel signaling (CCS): SS7
Present-day PSTN terminals1

Fixed-line phones (analog, ISDN)
Cordless phones (PBX-RF interface: DECT2)
Fax
Pay phones
Private Branch Exchange (PBX)
Gateways to Public Land Mobile Networks (PLMN):
GSM
wireless local area networks (WLAN)
Local loop data extensions

modems
ADSL technology
(leased lines)
1
2
Means here interfaces to other nets & equipment

DECT: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication
Present-day PSTN services

Value
Added
Basic service
Bearer service (local loop access): analog (/ISDN)
Value-added services (telephonist-originated) services as

directory inquiry (118)
weather, stock exchange, ticket reservation ...
Basic
Supplementary
Supplementary services (Intelligent Terminal (IN)

implementation)
distributed supplementary as call forwarding unconditional, call
waiting, queuing ...
centralized supplementary services (IN) use specialized routing &
charging as VPN, credit card calls, free phone (receiver pays), universal
access number (connected automatically to the nearest office), ...
PSTN today summarized

Gets still more subscribers!
ISDN very popular in switches (in Finland all-digital exchanges)
ISDN getting popular also for local loop access
Versatile access part
Conventional local loop technology develops fast
Remote controlled O&M
IN services fully-developed - Intelligence moves to terminals
Fiber-optical DWDM links connect exchanges
Common channel signaling (SS7)
SDH-based (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) trunk-networking
Analog local loop interface

Loop current used for signaling & message
Digital-lines to
ISDN central office
NationalHUT
Telecommunication
Institute
Comms Lab.,
Timo O. Korhonen
per trunk signaling

in local loop:
- long setup time
- hacking easy
- voice grade circuits
- interference & cross-talk
sensitive
Analog-line
Modern Wireless Technology
Track

- expensive
Basic telephone terminal

A basic phone can be
made by using just
four units
The
The
The
The
bell
hook switch
keypad
speech circuit
Modern keypads use dual-tone dialing

The speech circuit adapts
voice levels and isolates
mic and speaker
Signaling and dial tone

Numbers are dialed by:
Rotary type phones: pulses
Generate electrical pulses, 1 pulse
for digit 1, 2 pulses for digit 2, and
so on, 10 pulses for digit 0.
Push Button type phones: tones

Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency tones
(DTMF).
Tones are used for much more than
merely dialing destination phone
numbers. Also used to enable
specialized services from PBXs,
carriers, banks, information
services, and etc.
26
The hybrid circuit

4-wire connection is used between exchanges and 2-wire
connections from exchange to subscribers
Exchange A
Amplifier
Exhange B
Two-wire
Two-wire
Amplifier
Bridge
Bridge
The hybrid-circuit
If the impedance Zb equals the line impedance no
incoming voice (down right) leaks to outgoing voice (up
right)
but the signal goes via the two wire connection on the left
To exchange
Local loop
From exchange
The hybrid circuit summarized

The hybrid circuit transforms two-wire connection into 4-wire
connection.
If the hybrid is unbalanced echo will result
Hybrid is balanced when no own voice is leaked into own
loudspeaker
Hybrid unbalance can result from line impedance changes due to
weather conditions
Unbalance results echo
Echo cancellation circuits are harmful in data connections
Now a days realized by operational amplifier based circuitry that
automatically monitors line impedance changes
Network echo suppressor

R: transmission gate, A: attenuator, L: logic circuit
When the signal is present on the receiving line the transmitting line is
cut-of
A kind of semi-duplex approach to solve the echo problem

Network echo canceller (NEC)

Signal echo is extracted and subtracted from the received signal
More effective than echo suppressor. Often NEC and NES are however
both used
Pulse Dialing
Pulse dialing sends digit information to the CO by momentarily
opening and closing (or breaking) the local loop from the
calling party to the CO.
This local loop is broken once for the digit 1, twice for 2, etc.,
and 10 times for the digit 0. As each number is dialed, the
loop current is switched on and off, resulting in a number of
pulses being sent to your local CO.
32
Dual-tone dialing
Dual-tone dialing is used in subscriber loop to transmit the
selected B-subscriber number
Earlier pulse selection was applied (very rare nowadays)
1
4
ABC
DEF
697 Hz
770 Hz
GHI
JKL
MNO
852 Hz
941 Hz
PRS
TUV
WXY
1209 Hz
operator
1336 Hz
1477 Hz
High (column) frequencies
Low (row) frequencies
Tone Dialling with DTMF

Two tones as designated on
horizontal (row) and vertical
(column) frequency axes are
combined to produce unique
tones for each button on the
keypad
1633 Hz
This column is present
only on specialized
government phones
34
Tone Dialing with DTMF

High Freq.
Low Freq.
1209Hz 1336Hz 1447Hz 1633 Hz
697 Hz 1
770 Hz 4
852 Hz 7
941Hz *
Pressing a key on a phone's keypad generates two simultaneous tones,
one for the row and one for the column.

These are decoded by the CO to determine which key was pressed.
35
Basic modules of a modem

Diagnostic unit
Checks faults and controls the modem
Interface and line units

Adapt the modem and terminal
Computer
Modem performs A/D and D/A conversion and select rate such
that transmission quality criteria (error rate) can be meet
Interface
and
check
Demod.
Mod.
Line
unit
Line
Diagnostics
What is specified in a modem recommendation?

Data signalling rates, symbol rates, carrier frequencies preemphasis, scrambler, framing, encoder
Interface circuits
Start-up signals and sequences
Operating procedures
Testing facilities
There are two kind of modems specified by ITU-T:
Digital modems: Generates G.711 signals and receives V.34 signals passed
through a G.711 encoder. Connected to a digital switched network through
a digital interface
Analog modems: Generates V.34 signals and receives G.711 signals that
have been passed through aG.711
G.711
decoder
in modulation
an Analog
PSTN
loop
(11/88)
- Pulse code
(PCM)
of voicelocal
frequencies
V.34 (02/98) - A modem operating (up to 33 600 bit/s) for use in 2-wire analog
Some modem specifications

ITU-T specifies several modem standards as
V.26 (11/88) - 2400 bits per second modem for use on 4-wire leased
lines
V.27 (11/88) - 4800 bits per second modem for use on leased lines
V.27ter (11/88) - 4800/2400 bits per second modem for use in the
general switched telephone
V.29 (11/88) - 9600 bits per second modem for use on point-to-point
4-wire leased lines
V.90 (09/98) - 56 000 bit/s downstream and up to 33 600 bit/s
upstream modem for use in the general switched telephone
Connecting V.34 (33.6 kb/s) modem
Fax communications over PSTN

Faxes follow standard PSTN modem communications
recommendations or IEEE recommendations, as V.17
(02/91) (- Wire
modem for facsimile applications with rates up to 14 400 bit/s)
Faxes are divided into groups:
Group
Group
Group
Group
1
2
3
4
(68):
(76):
(80):
(84):
Analog scanning, 2400 bits/s

Analog scanning, 4800 bits/s
Digital scanning, 14400 bits/s
Digital scanning, 64 kbit/s (ISDN)
Example of modules in group 3 transmitting fax:

A4/US letter, Gray scales
1144 lines by dithering
Scanning
Scanning
Coding
Coding
Modified
Huffman
Compression
Compression
QAM, V.27ter/
V.29
Modem(D/A)
(D/A)
Modem
PSTN in ITU-T standards
(www.itu.org)
Series D Recommendations - General tariff principles

Series E Recommendations - Overall network operation,
telephone service, service operation and human factors
Series G Recommendations - Transmission systems and media,
digital systems and networks
Series I Recommendations - Integrated services digital
network (ISDN)
Series M Recommendations - Network maintenance:
international transmission systems, telephone circuits,
telegraphy, facsimile, and leased circuits
Modern Wireless
TechnologyTelecommunications
Track

ITU: International
Union
More PSTN standards...

Series O Recommendations
Specifications of measuring equipment
Series P Recommendations
Telephone transmission quality, telephone installations, local line
networks
Series Q Recommendations
Switching and signaling (Signaling Systems no:4,5,6, and 7, Register
Signaling no: R1, R2, IN - Service)
Series V Recommendations
Data communication over the telephone lines
Example: Q-recommendations:
Switching and signalling*
(Illustrative examples denoted by arrows)
*http://www.itu.int/rec/recommendation.asp?type=products&lang=e&parent=T-REC-Q
Switching and Signalling
(contd)
Recommendation E.134 (03/93)

Human factors aspects of public terminals: Generic operating
procedures
Switching:
Transfer modes & connections
Transfer modes
Circuit switching
PSTN
- developed for voice

- nowadays also for data
- well-specified delays
- echo problems
Packet switching
- developed for data
- nowadays also for voice
- Statistical multiplexing
- variable delays
Ethernet
Connection types
ATM
Connection oriented
- hand-shaking Frame-relay
- strict error requirements
- for fast data transfer
X.25
Connectionless
- broadcasting
- modest error rates
often accepted
- fast data in good channels
UDP*
*User Datagram Protocol
Telephony Networking
Telephony Essentials
Investigating the Local Loop
Infrastructure Issues and Standards
Troubleshooting
Analog and Digital Signaling
Telephony Essentials
Objectives
Describe the basic components of the telephone service
Describe industry standards and protocols
Identify the purpose and function of the central office
Identify ways to connect to the central office
Identify various types of trunks and signaling methods
Explain various digital signal hierarchy terms and issues
Discuss SONET and SDH
Describe the purpose of the primary reference source
Describe the functions and uses of various types of telephone cable and wiring plans
List the common call-processing steps
Telephony Basics
Basic telephone service consists of:
Public switched telephone network (PSTN) a system of
interconnected lines and switches
Plain old telephone service (POTS) standard telephony wires that
carry analog data
The last mile the POTS portion of the PSTN that connects to a
home or business (usually 2.5 miles)
The local loop the tip and ring wire in the RJ-11 connector
that provide a complete circuit to the central office
On-hook condition the line is not busy and is ready for a
connection
Off-hook condition the line is busy
Telephony Basics
(cont'd)
Phone company terminology:

Local exchange carrier (LEC) the local telecommunications company
Local access and transport area (LATA) the area serviced by a LEC
Incumbent local exchange carrier (ILEC) a telco already in business
before the Telecommunications Act of 1996
Competitive local exchange carrier (CLEC) a company that competes
with LECs and ILECs
Interexchange carrier (IXC) a company that carries long-distance
calls between LECs in different LATAs
Industry Standards and Protocols

International Telecommunications Union (ITU) manages
worldwide telephony and networking standards
ITU-T series standards documents labeled
A through Z
Radio Equipment and Telecommunications Terminal Equipment
directive determines standards for wireless devices in the United
Kingdom and Europe
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) publishes Requests for

Comments (RFCs) that provide information about standardized
Internet protocols
The Central Office

Central office (CO) switching location for local and longdistance calls
CO uses three types of switches:
Class 3 (also known as an IXC, remote or long-distance switch)
Class 4 (also known as a tandem switch)
Class 5 (also known as an end-office switch)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) converts analog voice data to

digital format, then back to analog
PCM uses two compression algorithms:
Mu-Law (used only in North America and Japan)
A-Law (the standard for all international circuits)
CO Connections
Point of presence (POP)
an interexchange carrier that connects long-distance services to a
local connection
Foreign Exchange Service (FX)

provides telephone services from a CO that is outside the local calling
area
Private Branch Exchange (PBX)

enables an organization to create in internal telephone-numbering
system
Centrex
enables an organization to provide a pool of lines (alternative to PBX)
Direct Inward Dialing (DID)/Direct Dialing Inward (DDI)
enables multiple telephone numbers to be used on a few lines
Trunks and Signaling

Trunk
a direct communication line between two switching systems; used to establish end-to-end
communications between customers
Ear and mouth (E&M) trunks

carry voice and data on one series of lines, and signaling on a separate set of lines
Analog loop-start trunks

use two wires (the tip and the ring) to act as conductors for the connection
Ground-start trunk lines

require that both ends of a connection detect ground before the tip and ring wires can create a
loop
Digital trunk lines

signaling information and data are sent digitally
A and B bits
signaling bits that allow a line to determine when connected systems check for dial tone and
whether a remote system is in an on-hook or off-hook condition
Digital Trunks and

the Digital Signal Hierarchy
Digital signal hierarchy (DSH) provides a standard for digital

signal levels
Use DSH to purchase the required amount of network
bandwidth to accommodate telephone and network
connections
DSH levels are analogous to the T-carrier system
Digital signals use frames to carry data and addressing
information:
Super frame
Extended super frame (the most common standard)
SONET and SDH

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
High-speed, fiber optic networks organized in rings
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
Fiber ring networks used internationally
Essentially the same as SONET
SONET and SDH
(cont'd)
The basic measure of SONET speed is the Synchronous Transport Signal level 1 (STS-1)
frame, which travels at
51.84 Mbps
SONET and SDH
(cont'd)
The basic unit for SDH is the Synchronous Transport Module

(STM)-1 frame, which travels at 155.52 Mbps
SONET and SDH
(cont'd)
Benefits of using SONET/SDH

You can use multiplexors and routers to combine different data
lines and streams onto one line
One heterogeneous network can communicate with another
distant heterogeneous network via one fiber optic ring
The Primary Reference Source

Primary reference source (PRS) a network of hyper-accurate clocks used to precisely
time digital connections
PRS strata
Stratum
Stratum
Stratum
Stratum
1
2
3
4
extremely accurate but very expensive

used by long-distance providers
used by the CO
used by PBXs
Timing types
Asynchronous no timing information is shared
Synchronous a common system clock is used for all trunk lines and networks
involved
Plesiosynchronous a number of PRS clocks are used for all networks involved
Service wire
Cabling and Wiring
centre houses one or more local switching systems
Main distribution frame (MDF)

the main interface between the telco's lines and all internal lines
Patch panel
interconnects voice and data lines with RJ-11 and/or RJ-45 connectors
Intermediate distribution frame (IDF)

connects the MDF and a user's telephone handset
Combined distribution frame (CDF)

same as MDF and IDF but also houses connections from incoming lines and lines from inside
equipment
Minimum point of entry (MPOE)

the point at which phone lines first enter your facility
Network interface device (NID)

terminates the connections from the central office
Load coil and Bridge tap

Load coil is the device that improves voice transmission where Bridge tap is cable
that used
Call-Processing Steps
Placing a call
Call setup the connection is built between the local loop and the CO
Call connection maintenance the connection is established and maintained
Call completion breaking the connection
Common analog transmission impairments
Loss parts of the transmission are dropped
Echo parts of the conversation are repeated
Noise unwanted energy that interferes with the signal
Crosstalk parts of another conversation are heard
Echo cancellation in hybrid networks
When two-wire and four-wire networks are connected, a hybrid network is created,
which can result in echo
An echo canceller balances the ohm levels between the lines, thereby eliminating
the echo
PSTN Local Loop
The Local Loop (Last Mile)

Modems, ADSL, and Wireless
Use both analog and digital transmissions (E1)

Conversion is done by the modems and codecs.
Transmission problems :
Attenuation (loss of energy), delay distortion (propagation speed vs
freq), noise (white noise, crosstalk, impulse noise)
Objectives
Explain the importance of a demarcation point in telephony
Identify signaling types used in the local loop
Use numbering standards, including the North American
Numbering Plan (NANP) and United Kingdom standards
Explain how the local loop is wired
Wire RJ-11 and RJ-12 connectors
Wire BT-431A and BT-631A connectors
Wire a wall jack and a line jack unit
Inside the Demarcation Point

Minimum point of entry (MPOE)
The telco's demarcation point
The point where telco equipment ends and inside local loop wiring
begins
Drop wire the line from the telephone pole to the MPOE
Station wire the line inside the MPOE
Getting to the Local Loop

Global numbering plans
ITU Recommendation E.164 establishes standards for numbering
plans
Telephone numbers should not exceed 15 characters
North American Numbering Plan (NANP)

Numbers are 10 digits long
Getting to the Local Loop
(cont'd)
Area code jeopardy and relief
Realignment move areas from one area code to another

Split create a new area code
Three-way split create two new area codes out of one area code
Overlay assign a new area code in the same geographic area as an
existing area code
Specified Numbering Scheme (SNS)

Enables people in the U.K. to make calls using a uniform formula
Connecting the local loop:

Line interface circuit (LIC)
Used for signaling in certain

coin-operated pay-phones and PBX
Line interface circuit components

Over-voltage protection
Test equipment to connect to monitor the line condition faults
Voltage feed
ringing
telephone current supply
Detection of
hook stage, pulse generated, or dual-tone receiver
The hybrid junction (2 wire - 4 wire interface)
An A/D converter (uses PCM techniques at 64 kbps)
Signaling Types
Three types of signaling:
Rotary/pulse or multi-frequency (MF) used on rotary dial phones
Dual tone multi-frequency (DTMF) generated by touch-tone pads on
all standard phones
Digital does not process audible tones
RJ-11 Connectors and Wiring
RJ-11 Connectors and Wiring
(cont'd)
Telephone jacks constitute a tip and ring

Tip
The "transmit" wire
The positive side of the circuit (in relation to the ring)
Ring
The "receiving" wire
The negative side of the circuit (in relation to the tip)
RJ-12 Modular Connector
RJ-11 Wall Connector Wiring
BT-431A Connectors
BT-631A Connectors
Line Jack Units

Three types of line jack units
Master
PBX master
Secondary
Master line jack units contain:
A 26-amp surge protector

A 1.8 uf, 250-volt capacitor
A 470-ohm service resistor
Six terminals designed to accept wiring from the wall
Wall Jack Wiring Diagram
Summary
Explain the importance of a demarcation point in telephony
Identify signaling types used in the local loop
Use numbering standards, including the North American
Numbering Plan (NANP) and United Kingdom standards
Explain how the local loop is wired
Wire RJ-11 and RJ-12 connectors
Wire BT-431A and BT-631A connectors
Wire a wall jack and a line jack unit
Infrastructure Issues and

Standards
Objectives
List common telephony connectivity and safety issues
Identify safety procedures
Explain safety standards
Determine the proper cabling procedures for specific
environments
Identify various cable terminations
Wire an RJ-45 connector
Explain the importance of plenum cabling
Explain the necessity of securing equipment
Common Telephony Issues

Quality assurance and business continuity
Uptime the length of time a device has remained operational
Mean time between failure (MTBF) the predicted amount of time a device will
function before it requires maintenance or replacement
Return on investment (ROI) the calculations made to ensure that equipment will
result in company profitability
Telecommunications reliability and safety issues:
Extreme temperatures
Vibration and shock
Humidity
Fire
Noise
Altitude
Common Telephony Issues
(cont'd)
Electromagnetic compatibility
Electrostatic discharge (ESD) An uncontrolled buildup of electrical current
Radio frequency interference (RFI) A signal that causes another device to operate
improperly
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) interference produced by electromechanical
devices
Solutions for electrical issues:
EMI suppression filters
Capacitors
Inductors
Line filters
Shielding
Ensuring proper humidity
Personnel safety concerns and procedures
Network Equipment Building System

Network Equipment Building System (NEBS)
Protects people and property
Ensures operational continuity in the telephony industry
NEBS sets standards for the operation of telephony equipment with respect to:
Earthquake zones
Operating conditions and transport conditions
Levels of contaminants
NEBS standards documents
GR-63-CORE (Physical Protection)
GR-1089-CORE (Electromagnetic Compatibility and Electrical Safety)
Standards Bodies
Standards bodies provide telephony standards
Independent Committee for the Supervision of Standards of Telephone
Information Services (ICSTIS)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Independent Testing Laboratory (ITL)
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)
British Standards Institute (BSI)
Proper Cabling Procedures

When pulling cable:
Avoid sharp bends in the cable
Take care to eliminate sharp edges in conduits and other areas where
cable might get worn or cut
Make sure that wiring does not interfere with mechanical equipment
Avoid passing wire close to fluorescent lights
Ensure that you are using the right type of cable for a particular job
Choosing the Proper Cable

American Wire Gauge (AWG) standard
Standard gauges
22 AWG floor or wall cable
24 AWG backbone and drop cable
26 AWG drop cable and devices that pass data between similar devices
(daisy chaining)
The EIA/TIA 568 standard is the most commonly used for twisted pair
cabling
IBM Cabling Standard

12345678
RJ-45 connector an eight-pin modular
cable ending used in Ethernet
networks
Crossover cabling allows two systems
to communicate without the use of an
intermediary device, such as an
Ethernet hub
WO O WG Be WBe G WBr Br
PISN Signaling Methods

Digital Private Network Signaling Scheme (DPNSS) a collection of protocols that
enable PBX-to-PBX communication over ISDN lines
Tromboning a problem that occurs when a second connection is opened unnecessarily
to accommodate a call that is being re-transferred back from one PINX to another
QSIG the de facto standard for PISNs connected by PINX equipment through ISDN
lines
QSIG basic services enable PISN elements to establish voice and data calls
QSIG supplementary services help control remote PINXs built by different
manufacturers
Additional network features (ANF) signaling enhancements that help handle calls
PISN Signaling Methods
(cont'd)
QSIG basic call (QSIG BC)
Q and C Reference Points

Q reference point the point at which a logical PINX interface
communicates with a remote PINX
C reference point the physical interface between a PINX and
a trunk line
Signaling System Seven (SS7)

Signaling System Seven (SS7) a packet-switched network protocol used by telcos in
calls that pass between switches
High Level Data Link Control (HDLC) a protocol that divides signaling data into
discrete packets
HDLC allows three categories of stations (entities) to communicate:
Primary initiates and controls communication
Secondary responds to communication
Combined controls and responds to communication
HDLC frame
Signaling System Seven (SS7)
(cont'd)
SS7 elements:
Service Switching Point (SSP)
Signaling Transfer Point (STP)
Service Control Point (SCP)
SS7 message types:
Initial Address Message (IAM)

Address Complete Message (ACM)
Answer Message (AM or ANM)
Release Message (REL)
Release Complete (RLC)
Computer-Telephone
Integration (CTI)
CTI the ability for

telephony networks and
data networks to share
data
Summary
Describe signaling categories and audible progress tones
Compare and contrast in-band and out-of-band signaling
Describe analog signaling in regard to E&M,
loop-start and ground-start trunks
Describe digital signaling, including T1 and ISDN lines
Describe the nature and functions of Private Integrated
Services Networks (PISNs)
Discuss Signaling System Seven (SS7)
Describe Computer-Telephone Integration
Basic Telecommunications Infrastructure

A central office (CO)
Telephone calls
is a facility belonging
are established
to local phone
(telephone switch)
by a device
company in which
located at CO
calls are switched to
known as
their proper
telephone switch.
destination.
Long distance carrier
doing business in a given
The circuits
LATA maintain a
between a
switching office in that
residence or
LATA known as POP or
business and
point of presence. POP
Central Office (CO)
handles billing
are known as local
information & routes the
loops.
call over long distance
All voice trafficCircuit
destined
between POPs
carriers switched
foritsoutside
localbe via satellite,
network to
POP in the
themay
LATA
must be handed
microwave, fiber optic
destination
LATA.
off to the long cable,
distance
traditional
carrier or IXC. wiring, or some
combination of these
media.
A central office (CO)

is a facility belonging
The
telephone
switch
to local
phone
Local
loop:
routes
callsintowhich
the This is
company
onlytelephone.
remaining
destination
calls are
switched
to in
analog circuit
Requested
their proper
PSTN.
destinations
destination. are
indicated by dialing a
series of numbers.
Which tell the switch
whether the call is (telephone switch)
intra-LATA, or interLATA.
98
Class 1:
regional centers
Representative
Voice Network
Hierarchy
Class 1:
regional centers
Class 2:
sectional centers
Class 2:
sectional centers
Class 3:
primary centers
This is POP, implies the long

distance billing and switching
activities.
Class 3:
primary centers
Class 4:
toll centers
This establishes the intra-LATA circuit

& also handles billing procedures for
long distance calls.
Class 4:
toll centers
Class 5:
local central office
Class 5:
local central office
Tandem office
This is an end office (CO) in

hierarchy contains a switch
that processes incoming calls,
determines the best path to
call destination, & establishes
the circuit connection.
Local
loops
Residential
customer
Local
loops
Business
customer
Residential
customer
Business
customer
Local Carrier's Domain of Influence, Intra-LATA

GOLDMA N & RAW
LE S: A DC3e
Modern
Wireless
Technology Track
FIG. 02-04
99
Representative Voice Network Hierarchy

Circuit redundancy offers multiple alternatives paths for call routing which is a
basic idea in voice network hierarchy.
If no paths are directly available, then the call is escalated up to the network
hierarchy to the next level of switching office.
The overall desire is to keep the call as low as possible in the hierarchy for
quicker call completion and maximization of the cost-effective use of switching
offices (i.e. trying to use the least expensive and less number of switching
offices).
Higher levels on network hierarchy imply greater switching and transmission
capacity as well as greater expense. When calls cannot be completed directly,
Class 4 toll centers turn to Class 3 primary centers that subsequently turn
to Class 2 sectional centers that turn finally to Class1 regional centers.
100
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
A newer switched digital service used for

small business and residential users.
ISDN BRI (Basic Rate Interface) service offers
two 64Kbps channels.
It offers two 64 Kbps channels, one for voice
while the other for data. Both can be used
simultaneously.
101
Simultaneous Voice/Data
Transmission with ISDN
PC
data and voice on
PC
separate channels
64Kbps data
ISDN modem
data/voice
digital
digital
ISDN modem
data/voice
ISDN
Analog Phone
Analog Phone
64Kbps voice
102
Private Branch Exchanges

A PBX is just a privately owned, smaller version but similar in
function to a public exchange.
A PBX is exclusively used by the organization and physically
located on the organizations premises.
Provides an interface between users and the shared network
(PSTN).
Additional services offered by a PBX allow users to use their
phones more efficiently and effectively.
Medium to large organizations can save a lot of money by
using a PBX.
103
PBX Architecture
PBX overall functionality and added features are controlled by
software programs running on specialized computers within the
PBX area sometimes referred to as the PBX CPU, stored
program control, or common control area.
User phones are connected to PBX via slide-in modules or cards
known as line cards, port cards, or station cards.
Connection of PBX to outside world is accomplished via Trunk
cards.
Starting with an open chassis or cabinet with power supply and
backbone, cards can be added to increase PBX capacity either for
the user extensions or outside connections.
Additional cabinets can be cascaded for expandability.
104
PBX Physical Architecture

Users and
phones
(stations)
PBX
CPU or common control

Switching matrix
Outside
trunks
105
PBX/Centrex Boxes
PBX Functions
DID / DOD
Auto Attendant
Call transfer
Speed Dialling
Voice mail
Follow-me
Call forwarding on
absence
Call forwarding on busy
Music on hold
Automatic ring back
Night service
Automatic call distributor
Call waiting
Call pick-up
Call park
Conference call
Call accounting
Voice paging (PA system)
Custom greetings
Shared message boxes
PBX Technology Analysis
PBX features and services tend to fall into three categories:
1. provide users with flexible usage of PBX resources.

2. provide for data/ voice integration.
3. control and monitor the use of those PBX resources.
108
1. Flexible Usage -
Voice Based Features and Services
Common features: Conference calling, Call forwarding /divert,

Redialing, Call transfer, Speed dialing, Call hold, Hunting, etc.
Least Cost Routing: Selecting lowest price long distance
carriers.
Automatic Call distribution: Incoming calls are routed directly
to certain extensions without going through a central
switchboard.
Call pickup: Allows a user to pickup or answer another users
phone without forwarding.
Paging: Ability to use paging speakers in a building.
109
2. Data/Voice Integration
Features and Services
Data is transmitted either:

through the PBX via a dedicated connection OR
a hybrid voice/data phone is used to transmit both voice and data
simultaneously over a single connection.
Features:
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) support, T-1 / E-1
interfaces support (codecs included or not), Data interfaces, modem
pooling, printer sharing, file sharing, video conferencing, etc.
110
3. Control and Monitoring
Features and Services
Basic: (e.g.)
Limiting access to outside lines from certain extensions.
Advanced:
Call accounting system: program run on a separate PC directly
connected to the PBX.
Process within the PBX known as Station Message Detail Recording
(SMDR) where an individual detail record is generated for each call.
Used for spotting abuse, both incoming and outgoing calls can be
tracked.
Allocating phone usage on a departmental basis.
111
Call Accounting Systems Installation

CPU or common control
SMDR
output
Trunk card
Station card
Station card
Switching matrix
Station card
Users and
phones
(stations)
PBX
Outside
trunk
PC-based, call
Report
accounting system printer
Call records are either savedUsually an RSor discarded based on call 232 connection
filtering settings
112
Auxiliary Voice Related Services

Auxiliary add-on device that provides the following services:
Automated attendant
Voice mail
Voice response units (VRU), e.g., Interactive voice response (IVR).
Voice processor: e.g. speech recognition
Voice server: a LAN based server that stores, and delivers digitized
voice messages. Used with voice mail system.
Music / ads on hold
113
Residential Internet Access Services

Telephone Modems
Broadband Internet Access
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
Cable Modem Service
3G Cellular Data Service
WiMAX (802.16d and 802.16e)
Broadband over Power Lines
Fiber to the Home (FTTH)
6114
Telephone Modem Connection to an ISP

Telephone modems
convert digital computer
signals to analog
telephone signals.
Analog
Digital
33.6 kbps
Client A
Telephone Telephone
Modem
PSTN (Digital)
Analog
Access
Line
56 kbps
115
PSTN (Digital) Digital Leased Line

(No Modem)
ISP does not have a modem.
It has a digital leased line so
can send at 56 kbps.
(There is no bandpass
filtering on digital leased lines.)
56 kbps
Digital
33.6 kbps
ISP
116

PSTN (Digital)
Analog
Digital
33.6 kbps
Client A
Analog
Access
Line
Telephone Telephone
Modem
56 kbps
Digital Access Line

(No Modem)
Digital
56 kbps
33.6 kbps
ISP
Circuit
Dial-up circuits connect the client with the ISP.
56 kbps downstream, 33.6 kbps upstream
6117
Telephone Modem Limitations

Very low transmission speeds
Long delays in downloading webpages
Subscriber cannot simultaneously use the telephone line for

voice calls
Still used by 30% to 40% of Internet users.
6-118

Telephone Company
End Office Switch
Subscriber
Premises
PC
ADSL
Modem
Splitter
Data
WAN
Single Pair of
Voice-Grade
UTP Wires
DSLAM
PSTN
Telephone
ALSO uses the existing residential local loop technology.

nsive because no need to pull new wires, but 1-pair voice-grade UTP is not designed for high-speed transm
119
1. Subscriber needs an ADSL modem.

Also needs a splitter forSubscriber
each
telephone wall outlet. Premises
PC
ADSL
Modem
Splitter
Telephone Company
End Office Switch
Data
WAN
Single Pair of
Voice-Grade
UTP Wires
DSLAM
PSTN
Telephone
2. Telephone carrier needs a digital subscriber line
access multiplexer (DSLAM) to separate the two signals.
120

Speed is
asymmetric
Faster
downstream
than upstream
(Up to 32
Mbps versus
up to 512
kbps)
Ideal for Web
access
Acceptable for
e-mail
Good for
residential use
Subscriber
Premises
Telephone Company
Downstream
DownstreamData End Office Switch
Up to 1.5 Mbps
Data
Up to 32 Mbps
PC
ADSL
Modem
Upstream Data
Up to 512 kbps
Single Pair of
Voice-Grade
UTP Wires
DSLAM
Splitter
Telephone
Data
WAN
PSTN
Ordinary Telephone
Service
Unlike telephone modems, ADSL service
provides simultaneous voice and data transmission.
6Modern Wireless Technology Track
121
PSTN Architecture
122
The PSTN Architecture

PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
Uses digital trunks between Central Office switches (CO)
Uses analog line from phones to CO
Analog line
Digital Trunks
Central
Office
(CO)
Digital
Analog
Analog
Public Switched Telephone

Network
Local CO
408-527-xxxx
22,000 in US
1-10 Km
CAT 3
Tandem
(class 4)
Mostly fiber or
microwave running
ATM or IP
(MCI, Sprint, ATT)
Three major components of PSTN:

Local loops
Trunks
Switching Offices
Switching in public networks
Cell switching
- resembles packet switching
- difference: cells (packets) have a fixed size :
offers bounded delay guarantees
(QoS compatible, long packets wont stuck cells)
(fixed
length)
CSPDN: Circuit switched public data net*

PSPDN: Packet switched public data net**
DQDB: Distributed queue dual bus
Modern
Technology
* UsedWireless
by European Telecoms
that use X.21 inTrack
circuit switched nets
**Used by British Telecoms Packet-switched Service (PSS), Data Pac (Canada) ...
Circuit switching
Circuit switching
- dedicated path
- constant delay/bandwidth
- voice/data
- paid by time
- examples: PSTN, VPN
Time switch
- Makes switching between time slots
- In the figure incoming slot 3 is moved to
outgoing slot 3 for one voice direction
- Each coming timeslot stored in Speech Store
(SS)
- Control store (CS) determines the order the slot
are read from SS
- The info in CS is determined during setup
phase of the call
Space switch
- makes switching between PCM lines
- works with electronic gates controlled by CS
Cross-point
Cross-point
controlled
controlled
by
byCS
CS
TDMA
Time Division Multiplexing (E1)
The
T1 frame is composed of 230 channels

The frame is 193 bits = 1 framing bit + 8 bits * 32 Time Slots (TS)
Framing bit creates an additional channel of 8 kb/s
Frame rate is 8 KHz, each channel is 8K * 7 bits = 56 Kbps
The extra bit is used for CAS (Channel Associated Signaling)
E1 32 channels, 2.048 MHz = 32 ch * 8K * 8 bits/ch, CCS
PCM voice
or data
Packet switching
Packet structure
Seq:
sequence number
Op code: message/control
identifier
CRC:
Cyclic Redundancy
Code
Node structure
Note:
- source address required for retransmission
in ARQ
- byte count could be also an
end flag
Connection-oriented and
connectionless switching
Connection oriented
- Applies same route
- QoS well defined
Connectionless
- Phases
- Connection setup
- Data transmission
- Release
- Packets received in same order
- Example: ATM, frame relay, PCM
- Use of different routes for

each packet possible
- Each packet have address fields
- QoS not guaranteed
- Packets may come in different order
- Example: IP (Internet Protocol),
TCP takes care of cleaning the mess
comparison of circuit switched and packet-switched networks
Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN)

Telephone
Digital data
Facsimile
Telex
network
network
network
network
Services and network integrations
Computer control
technologies
ISDN
Digital technologies
ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

B ch for information transfer
2B+D
64 kbit/s
D ch for signaling transfer
Basic rate interface

(2B+D)
64 kbit/s
16 kbit/s
144 kbit/s
30B+D
64 kbit/s
Primary Rate Interface (PRI)

B
64 kbit/s
64 kbit/s
30 B channels
64 kbit/s
Primary
Rate
Interface
(2.048 Mbit/s)
Broadband ISDN
Todays N-ISDN
Circuit switched
network
Packet switched network
Broadband ISDN (continued)

To be integrated by B-ISDN
ATM and
Optical
Fiber
Network
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
ATM Cell Structure

Information
Header
(48 Bytes)
(5Bytes)
Incoming data is chopped every 48 bytes, added a header then

an ATM cell is formed. Transmission and switching are
conducted by cell basis.
STM/ATM
#1
#2
#3
STM
STM
MUX
MUX
#4
STM: Synchronous Transfer Mode
#1
#2
#3
#4
ATM
MUX
Example of cell switching:

Distributed queue dual buss (DQDB)
LAN
Function
- transport units constant length
- access units access
info in the ring:
access
unit
- know subscribers in access units
subnets and route packets for them
- access protocol applies token ring
Properties
- distributed switching (Compare
to FDDI*)
- ATM compatible
- rates: 64 kb/s ... 45 Mb/s
- geographical limit up to 200 km
access
unit
access
unit
LAN
access
unit
*FDDI: Fiber Distributed Data Interface

see: http://www.iol.unh.edu/training/fddi/htmls/
Transport Unit (same as in ATM)
Connecting into PSTN exchange:

Equipment in the access network
Distribution point
On-line subscriber
with several telephones
Cross connection point
Twisted pair - connection
ISDN 2B+D
144 kb/s
Q.512 specifies
exchange interfaces
Wireless
access
(or radio access
point)
Business
subscriber
ISDN connection
example: 30B+D
(2.048 Mb/s)
Multiplexer

Private Branch Exchange
Local exchange
Signaling (SS7) with users and

other exchanges
to other exchanges
PBX
ETC
Subscriber
stage
Group
switch
Announcement
equipment
Traffic concentration
Test/measurement equipment
- Operation & maintenance support (Q.513)

- Charging Control system
- Supplementary (IN) services
- Subscriber data, switch control
Control
Third-party
equipment
Switch
Signaling
equipment
conference calls, call waiting,

ETC: Exchange terminal circuit
Track
broadcasting ... Modern Wireless Technology
IN: Intelligent network
Subscriber stage
Connects to: digit receivers, info
tones, test equipment
internet access
(DSLAM)
centrex service
To ETC
MUX
Concentrator
Control System: subscriber

authentication, routing, billing, O & M, ...
Modern
ETC: Exchange terminal circuit

store: shift registers
storing bits for time switching
WirelessSpeech
Technology
Track
Control store: gates guiding speech store switches
Exchange control functions

Maintenance functions
supervision of subscriber lines and trunk circuits
Operational functions
administrative data as
subscriber database
routing database
statistical data as
from where and whom subscribers call
holding times for different equipment types
utilization of IN services
User services
Sample of IN services
Exchange user services (examples)

Absent-subscriber services as the
answering machine
Call booking: connection at the desired time
Person-to-person call: ensures that call goes
to a right person
Serial call: setting up several calls
Telephone conferencing: several persons
participate to call in real-time (compare: teleconferencing)
Directory inquiries: also speech recognition,
recorded
messages
(many
of
these
nowadays
available
in
The space-switch
(used as a cross-switch and concentrator)
Number of cross-connections reduced compared if a simple

space division matrix of NxM (input x output) would be used
Usually performs concentration: Blocking possible
Same signal can be routed via different paths: increased
reliability
The time-switch
One of the time slots of any full-duplex lines is connected to some

other line (at a time)
Thus two switches / time slot connect a line
For 100 full-duplex lines at 19.6 kbps a 1.92 Mbps bus is thus required
for no blocking
If no fixed assignment of input lines to time slot but on demand
allocation -> blocking switch that reduces number of switches and
switch clock frequency. For instance 200 lines of 19.6 kbps with bus of
1.92
Mbps
-> about half of the devices can connect at any time, eg concentration is
2:1
The time-space-time (TST) switch

Works in local exchange and subscriber stage
Performs PCM concentration, usually 10:1 3:1
Connects subscribers also to information tones
and test equipment
Time switch contains one bus for incoming and
Space switch
outgoing calls (full-duplex)Time switch
Subscriber stage
Time switch
PSTN ISDN exchange interfaces

Q.512)
V4 A
V1
NT
CN
LT ET
LT
V2
ET
X
ISDN PABX
AN
LT
LT
V3
V5
ET
ET
Peek to Q-recommendations
ET
LT
ET
LT
ET
LT
CN:Concentrator
ET:Exchange T.
LT:Line T.
AN:Access Net.
NT:Network
T. (in ISDN)
T:Terminal
Exchange interfaces and tasks, V1

Purpose of exchange is to organizes connection
between exchange terminators!
V1: Access to basic ISDN (This is users ISDN-u
interface that can be used to connect small PBX also)
Basic ISDN V1-functions:
2 B + D (2x64 kbps + 16 kbps) channeling structure
timing and frame synchronization
activate and deactivate terminator
operation and maintenance
feeding power supply
ISDN basic access parameters defined in G.961
Exchange interfaces and tasks, V2-V4

V2: Interface serves typically concentrators
2048 kbit/s eg
30 B + D
Electrical standard G.704
V3: Resembles V2 but intended for interface other
exchanges (PABX)
Electrical standard G.703
30 B + D at 2048 kb/s
also 23 B +D at 1544 kb/s (I.431)
V4:Interface to private networks (not ITU-T
specified), for instance DSLAM (ADSL-interface)
Exchange interfaces and tasks, V5

Between access network and exchange
2048 kbit/s
Specifies basic interfaces for
Analog access
ISDN-access
Electrical interface G.703

Channel control and signaling
V5 supports interface rates 2048 kbit/s
8448 kbit/s
PSTN operation and maintenance

Different alarm classes
Vital functions and circuits
(as SS7 and group switch)
use secured paths and
backups
Procedures provided for:
troubleshooting
fault diagnostics
hardware faults can
be isolated
A supervision plan
by
network levels:
Supervision is realized also

by connecting maintenance
units to the network
Important switches have
extensive backup equipment
Modern PSTN hierarchy

to international level
Transit exchange
Regional transport level
Local transport level
Local exchange
Access transport level

PSTN Hierarchy cont.

Local (example, within a city)
Subscriber connections
Switching within the local exchange
Switching to other exchanges
Transit (county level, say between Tampere and Helsinki)

Switching traffic between different geographical areas within
one country
International
Gateway-type traffic between
different countries
DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing) routes
Rates can follow SONET or SDH standard
Subscriber signaling for local calls
Inter-exchange signaling
Channel associated signaling (CAS) as No.5, R1, R2
analog and digital connections
Modern ISDN exchanges apply SS7(digital), that is a
common channel signaling method (CSS) that is
discussed later in its own lecture
CAS is divided into line and register signaling:
Line signaling:
line state between the trunk-links as
answer, clear-forward*, clear-back

Register signaling:
routing information as
B-number, A-category, B-status
Modern
Wireless
Track to B exchange
*A-subscriber
on-hookTechnology
message transmitted
Inter exchange signaling (cont.)

Three categories of information is transmitted:
setup, supervision clearing
service related information as
forwarding, callback, charging
status change information

transmission network congestion
neighborhood exchange congestion
Example of inter-exchange signaling
Inter-exchange signaling (cont.)
159
Troubleshooting
Objectives
Identify common troubleshooting tools
Use a line test handset (butt set)
Use a tone and probe kit
Use a digital multimeter
Use a line tester
Discuss how to troubleshoot analog lines
Discuss how to troubleshoot digital lines
Discuss telephony power issues
Troubleshooting Terms
Short (continuity)
Open (open fault)
Terminator
Cross
Polarity
Split
Line imbalance
Loopback testing
End-to-end testing
Troubleshooting Tools
Telephone line test set
Also called a butt set or handset

Used to test line quality
Used to check line polarity
Used to determine loss of current
End-to-end and loopback testing

A butt set is used to generate tones and frequencies to test lines
Can use analog butt sets to listen to digital communications by

going into "data safe mode"
(cont'd)
Tone and probe kit

A tone generator emits tones across a wire
A probe listens on the other end of the wire for tones emitted by the tone generator
Uses
Identify open circuits
Locate short circuits
Identify breaks in a cable
Test polarity of a line
Determine line voltage
Identify lines that are causing crosstalk
Find a single conducting wire in a bundle of wires
Provide talk battery power to test a line with no dial tone
(cont'd)
Multimeter
Measures resistance, current and voltage in an electrical circuit
(cont'd)
Punchdown tool
Inserts wires in 66 and 110 punchdown blocks
Line tester
Determines if a short exists in a line
Laptop computer
Connects to a telephony network and uses packet sniffers to
troubleshoot lines
Additional devices
ABS
DTMF decoder
Acoustic coupler
Modular breakout adapter
Troubleshooting Analog Lines

PBX and ground-start analog lines
At the PBX, use a butt set to isolate crosstalk to determine if the
problem is within or outside the building
Securing connections with a punchdown tool

Poorly closed connections or improperly set lines can cause line noise
Checking for line noise

Use a digital multimeter to measure for AC voltage
AC voltage > 1 volt = improper grounding
Troubleshooting Digital Lines

Improper clocking configuration
Voice and data lines must be precisely synchronized using the CO's
PRS
Use a butt set to check for improper clocking
Check the Service Profile Identifier (SPID)

No connection will occur if the SPID is missing or incorrect
SPID = area code + 7-digit phone number +
ISDN number
Check for proper termination

Be aware of different ISDN voice-encoding standards
Troubleshooting Digital Lines
(cont'd)
Consider signal-to-noise ratio

Test equipment for digital networks
Signal/spectrum analyzer
Multimeter
Oscilloscope
Network analyzers
Time domain reflectometer (TDR)
Service-specific test set
Telephony Power Issues

Grounding/earthing
When connecting telephony and LAN-based equipment, ensure that all systems
have only one ground path
Use an earth loop tester to avoid grounding problems
Ensure that power is connected properly at the electrical termination device (circuit
breaker)
Physical security
Place all equipment in a dedicated server or CTI room
Telephones and ring voltage
REN value determines the ringing voltage
-90 v AC charge needed to ring a standard analog telephone
Summary
Identify common troubleshooting tools
Use a line test handset (butt set)
Use a tone and probe kit
Use a digital multimeter
Use a line tester
Discuss how to troubleshoot analog lines
Discuss how to troubleshoot digital lines
Discuss telephony power issues
Analog and Digital Signaling
Objectives
Describe signaling categories and audible progress tones
Compare and contrast in-band and out-of-band signaling
Describe analog signaling in regard to E&M,
loop-start and ground-start trunks
Describe digital signaling, including T1 and ISDN lines
Describe the nature and functions of Private Integrated
Services Networks (PISNs)
Discuss Signaling System Seven (SS7)
Describe Computer-Telephone Integration
Signaling Categories
Signaling categories:
Supervision detects changes to a particular line

Addressing responsible for routing signals to the correct switch
Alerting audible alert signals
Call progress signals that maintain calls
Audible call progress tones:
Dial tone
Busy signal
Receiver off hook too long
Nonexistent number
In-Band and
Out-of-Band Signaling
In-band signaling
The process of allowing the control signal to share the same path as
the voice and data
Out-of-band signaling
The process of using a separate channel for signaling purposes
Analog Signaling
Ear and mouth (E&M) signaling
Separate signaling wires for voice and data
Analog Signaling
(cont'd)
Grounding on E&M lines

Immediate start
Wink start
Delay-dial start
Reducing E&M trunk glare with wink starting
Loop-Start Analog Trunk Signaling
Ground-Start Analog Trunk Signaling
(Idle and Outgoing Calls)
Ground-Start Analog Trunk Signaling
(Incoming Calls)
Digital Signaling
T1 lines and in-band signaling
Channelized T1 24 channels of 56 Kbps for voice and data
Unchannelized T1 1.536 Mbps for voice and data
Bit robbing
The practice of using the least significant portions, or bits, of a data or
voice channel for signaling
The T1 Superframe (SF) robs the A and B bits for signaling
The Extended Superframe (ESF) has four bits (A, B, C and D), though
only A and B are used
Digital E&M Signaling

A and B bit settings for
sending and receiving
switches:
Idle A and B bits are
set to 0 for both
switches
Call initiation switch A

sets bits A and B to 1;
switch B sets bits A and
B to 0
Call completion both

National Telecommunication
Institute
switches have
the A
and B bits set to 1
Digital Ground and Loop Starts

When an FXS is idle:
The CO's A and B bits = 1
The PBX's A bit = 0; the B bit = 1
When a digital loop-start line is in an idle state:

The A bits for the CO/FXO and PBX/FXS = 0
The B bits for the CO/FXO and PBX/FXS = 1
When an FXS or PBX makes an outgoing call:

The CO/FXO's A bit = 0; the B bit = 1
The PBX/FXS's A bit = 1; the B bit = 1
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

ISDN can carry voice, FAX, imaging or data communications
Two types of ISDN:
ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI) Two 64-Kbps channels for voice or
data; one 16-Kbps channel for signaling
ISDN Primary Rate Interface (PRI) 23 64-Kbps channels for voice or
data; one 16-Kbps channel for signaling
B channel (bearer channel) carries voice or data

D channel (delta channel) carries signaling
H channel combined B channels
ISDN Protocols
I.430 explains how the ISDN interface uses the physical and
data link layers of the OSI/RM (Layers 1 and 2, respectively)
ISDN interfaces must use reference points between the telco
and the end station:
U interface
S interface
T interface
Network Termination Equipment (NTE)
Terminal adapter
Terminal equipment
ISDN Protocols
(cont'd)
High Level Data Link Control Link Access Protocol D Channel

(HDLC LAPD)
Used in ISDN connections to provide signaling
LAPD operates solely in the D channel of an ISDN line
LAPD provides flow control and data reliability
Q.931 and Q.932

Q.931 manages how a session is begun and ended
Q.932 makes it possible to modify connections that are already under
way
Private Integrated Services Network (PISN)
PISN, showing connections via two different PINX types
Private Integrated Services Network (PISN)
(cont'd)
A PISN consists of the following:

End nodes provide specific services, including voice and data
Transit (transport) nodes provide routing services to ensure that calls and network requests
arrive at the proper destination
Telephone Number Plans

Telephone numbers are built using a hierarchical address
method. Numbers tell whether the call is local, intra-LATA, or
inter-LATA.
Divided into 3 basic parts: a 2-digit area code starting with 0, a
3-digit exchange, & a 4-digit subscriber number.
To make a call, at a minimum the exchange plus the subscriber
number must be dialed. But if the call is within the PBX then
only 4(or less)-digit subscriber number will be dialed.
If the call is to a destination outside the source phones code,
destination area code must be dialed as well.
189
System Signaling
In addition to carrying the actual voice signals,

the telephone system must also carry
information about the call itself.
This is referred to as system signaling or
inter-office signaling.
There are two approaches to system signaling:
in band and out of band.
190
In-band Signaling
In this system, the signals are sent on the

same channels as the voice data itself.
Dial tone makes sure that telephone switch at
CO is ready to serve.
Dialing the number sends the phone number
across in the voice bandwidth.
If the called party answers the phone, the
remote phone switch comes off the hook and
the connection is established.
191
Out-of-Band Signaling
In this system, the signals are sent on a

separate channel as from the voice.
Monitoring of circuit status notification and rerouting in the case of alarms or circuit
problems.
The worldwide approved standard for out-ofband signaling is Signaling System 7 (SS7).
192
Signaling System 7 (SS7)

It controls the structure and transmission of
both circuit-related and non-circuit related
information via out-of-band signaling between
central office switches.
It delivers the out-of-band signaling via a
packet switched network physically separate
from the circuit switched network that carries
the actual voice traffic.
It is nothing more than a packet-switched
network.
193
Signaling System 7 (SS7)
Alternate Billing System (ABS) allows a longdistance call to be billed to a calling party, to the
receiver (call collect), or to a third party.
Custom Local Area Signaling Service (CLASS)
is a group of services that allows many services
local access to the customers telephone. E.g., call
waiting, call forwarding, call blocking, etc.
Enhanced 800 services allows 800-number
portability. Originally, 800 numbers were tied to a
specific area code and long-distance provider.
Intelligent Call Processing (ICP) enables the
customers to reroute incoming 800 calls among
multiple customer service centers, geographically
dispersed, in seconds. This is transparent to the
caller.
Institute

194
Analog vs. Digital Transmission

Transmissions can be either analog or digital.
Analog transmissions, like analog data, vary
continuously. Examples of analog data being sent
using analog transmissions are voice on phone,
broadcast TV and radio.
Digital transmissions are made of square waves
with a clear beginning and ending. Computer
networks send digital data using digital
transmissions.
Data can be converted between analog and

digital formats.
When digital data is sent as an analog transmission

modem (modulator/demodulator) is used.
When
Institute
Modern
Wireless
Technology
analog
data is
sent as
a digitalTrack
transmission, a
195
Voice Digitization
The analog POTS system has been supplanted
in the modern telephone system by a
combination of analog and digital transmission
technologies.
Converting a voice conversation to digital
format and back to analog form before it
reaches its destination is completely
transparent to phone network users.
There are a limited ways the electrical pulses
can be varied to represent an analog signal.
196
Voice Digitization Techniques
Pulse Amplitude Modulation: (PAM)

Varies the amplitude of the electrical pulses.
Used in earlier PBXs.
Pulse Duration Modulation: (PDM/PWM)

Varies the duration of electrical pulses.
Pulse Position Modulation: (PPM)

Varies the duration between electrical pulses.
197
Voice
Digitization:
PAM
PAM: Pulse Amplitude Modulation

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
analog signal
Variable: Pulse amplitude

Constants: Pulse duration,
pulse position
Sampling rate = 8,000 times/second

1/8000 of a second
PDM: Pulse Duration Modulation
PDM
PPM
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
analog signal
Variable: Pulse duration

Constants: Pulse amplitude,
pulse position
4 6 5 7 4 5 7 6 4 6 5 4
PPM: Pulse Position Modulation

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
analog signal
Variable: Pulse position

Constants: Pulse amplitude,
pulse duration
4 6 5 7 4 5 7 6 4 6 5 4
198
Pulse Code Modulation
The most common method used to digitize

voice is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
No matter how complex the analog waveform
happens to be, it is possible to digitize all forms
of analog data, including full-motion video,
voices, music, telemetry, and virtual reality
(VR) using PCM. Native of .wav
The analog signal amplitude is sampled
(measured) at regular time intervals. The
sampling rate, or number of samples per
second, is several times the maximum
frequency of the analog waveform in cycles per
second or hertz.

199
How to obtain Pulse Code Modulation?

The instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal at
each sampling is rounded off to the nearest of
several specific, predetermined levels (called
quantization).
The number of levels is always a power of 2, e.g., 4,
8, 16, 32, 64, or 128. These can be represented by
bits.
The output of a pulse coder is thus a series of binary
numbers, each represented by some power of 2 bits.
At the destination (receiver end) of the
communications circuit, a pulse decoder converts the
binary numbers back into pulses having the same
quantum levels as those before the coder.
200
Step 1: Sample Amplitude of Analog Signal

Amplitude in example, at first sample position, is 4
8
Analog Signal to be Digitized
7
8 possible
amplitudes
are actually
256 (28)
amplitudes in
PCM
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1/8000 of a second Sampling rate = 8,000 times/second


201
Step 2: Represent Measured

Amplitude in Binary Notation
(0000 0100)2 =
(4)10
Power of 2
27
Value 128
Binary notation
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
64
32
16
8 bits = 1 byte
202
Step 3: Transmit Coded Digital Pulses

Representing Measured Amplitude
8 transmitted bits = 1 transmitted byte = 1

transmitted sampled amplitude
In this way next few samples will be:

(0000 0110)2 = (6)10
(0000 0101)2 = (5)10
(0000 0111)2 = (7)10
203
PCM uses:
T-1 and E-1
8000 samples/sec and 8 bits/sample, so for 1

digitized voice: 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps is the required
bandwidth.
This is known as a DS-0 (basic unit of voice data
trans.)
24 DS-0s = 24 x 64 Kbps = 1,536 Kbps = 1.536 Mbps
1 framing bit/sample x 8000 samples/sec = 8000

framing bps = 8 Kbps
8 Kbps + 1,536 Kbps = 1,544 Kbps = Trans. cap. of T1
T-1 (1.544 Mbps) can carry 24 simultaneous voice
digitized
viaTechnology
PCM.
National Telecommunication conversations
Institute
Modern
Wireless
Track

204
PCM uses:
T-1 and E-1
8000 samples/sec and 8 bits/sample, so for 1

digitized voice: 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps is the required
bandwidth.
This is known as a DS-0 (basic unit of voice data
trans.)
24 DS-0s = 24 x 64 Kbps = 1,536 Kbps = 1.536 Mbps
1 framing bit/sample x 8000 samples/sec = 8000

framing bps = 8 Kbps
8 Kbps + 1,536 Kbps = 1,544 Kbps = Trans. capacity
of T-1
T-1 (1.544 Mbps) can carry 24 simultaneous voice
digitized
viaTechnology
PCM.
National Telecommunication conversations
Institute
Modern
Wireless
Track

205
Adaptive Differential PCM (ADPCM)
Each voice channel uses 4 bits instead of 8 bits.

So, for 1 digitized voice: 8000 x 4 = 32,000 bps
is the required bandwidth. The standard for 32Kbps is known G.721
ADPCM supports 48 simultaneous
conversations over a T1 circuit.
The G.721 is used as a quality reference point
for voice transmissions (Toll Quality).
ADPCM is used to send sound on fiber-optic
long-distance lines as well as to store sound
along with text, images, and code on a CDROM.

206
Voice Compression
ADPCM is also known as voice compression

technique because of its ability to transmit 24
digitized voice conversations in half the
bandwidth required by PCM.
Other more advanced techniques employ DSPs
(Digital Signal Processors) that take the PCM
code & further manipulate and compress it.
DSPs are able to compress voice as little as
4800 bps.
Efficiency: 13 times more than PCM.
Voice compression may be accomplished by
stand alone units, or by integral modules within
Instituteequipment.

other
207
Voice Transmission Alternatives to

PSTN
Although the PSTN is the cheapest and most
effective way to transmit voice, alternative
methods are do exist.
Some of them are:
Voice over the Internet (VoIP)

Voice over Frame relay (VoFR)
Voice over ATM (VoATM)
208
Voice over the Internet (VOIP)

VOIP refers to any technology used to transmit
voice over any network running the IP protocol
(in packets).
It is not confined to use on the Internet only, can
be used in any of the following:
Modem based point-to-point connections
Local area networks (LANs)
Private Internets (Intranets)
It can be successfully deployed with:
VOIP client software

using a PC with sound card, microphone, and
speakers

gateways are being established to allow Internet
209
VOIP Transmission
Technology
REQUIRED CLIENT TECHNOLOGY
Client
workstation
Voice/sound
technology
Modem
Internal
Internet
LAN
Access
connection
speakers
ONLY required for
microphone
dial-up connections
IP-based Voice Client
ONLY
required for
Internet-
and / or
sound card
an
d
and
External
and / or
-orONLY
required for
LAN-based
voice
transmission transmission
based voice
software
210
VOIP Transmission Topologies

POINT-TO-POINT/MODEM-TO-MODEM
PC with required
analog dial-up
Client technology
lines
modem
PC with required
Client technology
modem
PSTN
211

LOCAL AREA NETWORK
LAN attached PCs with required
IP protocols REQUIRED
Client technology.
LAN hub
212

INTERNET/INTRANET
Internet
-orIntranet
LAN attached PCs with
required Client technology.
router
IP protocols REQUIRED
router
LAN hubs
213
Voice over Frame relay

Initially deployed for data transmission but is now
capable of delivering voice transmissions as well.
Frame relay encapsulates segments of a data transfer
session into variable length frames.
For longer data transfers, longer frames and for
shorter data transfers, shorter frames are used.
These variable length frames introduce varying
amounts of delay resulting from processing by
intermediate switches on the frame relay network.
This variable length delay works well with data
transmission but is not acceptable in voice
transmission because it is sensitive to delay.
214
Voice over Frame relay
Frame relay access device (FRAD) accommodates both

voice and data:
Voice prioritization: FRAD distinguish between voice and data traffic
(because of tagging), priority given to voice over data
Data frame size limitation: long data frames must be segmented into
multiple smaller frames to limit delays
Separate voice and data queues: within the FRAD
Voice conversations require 4 16 Kbps of bandwidth.

This dedicated bandwidth is reserved as an end-to-end
connection through frame relay network called
Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC).
Voice conversation can take place only between
locations directly connected to a frame relay network.
No current standards defined between frame- relay
networks and the voice based PSTN.
215
Voice Transmission over a Frame

Relay Network
Telephone service
Telephone service
PBX
PBX
voice
FR
voice and
data
data
FRAD
prioritizes voice
traffic
Frame Relay
Network
voice and
data
voice
FR
data
FRAD
prioritizes voice
traffic
PSTN
Local Area Network

NO voice interoperability
between Frame Relay and
PSTN networks
Local Area Network
216
Voice over ATM
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a switched-based

WAN service using fixed-length frames (called cells).
Fixed length cells assures fixed time processing by ATM
switches enabling predictable delay and delivery time.
Voice transmitted using Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
bandwidth reservation scheme.
CBR does not make optimal use of bandwidth because
of moments of silence.
Most common method: reserve a CBR of 64Kbps for
one conversation digitized via PCM.
217
Optimizing voice over ATM

Voice Compression: Achieved via ITU, G series of
standards, algorithms vary in amount of bandwidth
required to transmit toll quality voice:
G.726: 48, 32, 24 or 16 Kbps
G.728: 16 Kbps
G.729: 8 Kbps
Silence suppression: Cells containing silence are not

allowed and replaced at the receiver with synthesized
background noise. It reduces the amount of cells
transmitted for a given voice conversation by 50%.
Use of VBR (Variable bit rate): Combines positive
attributes of both voice compression and silence
suppression. By using bandwidth only when someone
is talking, remaining bandwidth is available for data
transmission or other voice conversations.
218
Voice Transmission over an ATM

Telephone service
Telephone service
Network
PBX
PBX
voice
compression/
decompression
voice
data
ATM
voice & data

ATM cells
silence
suppression/background
noise synthesis
voice
compression/
decompression
ATM
Network
voice & data

ATM
ATM cells
silence
suppression/background
noise synthesis
voice
data
-eitherCBR - Constant Bit Rate

-orVBR - Variable Bit Rate
transmission through ATM network
Local Area Network
Local Area Network
219
Voice/Data Multiplexers
Organizations have traditionally chosen to link

voice and data transmission over long distances
via leased digital transmission services such as
T-1/E-1.
From a business perspective, switched services
(frame relay, ATM) are charged according to
usage and leased lines are charged according to
flat monthly rate whether they are used or not.
Many businesses found that usage based pricing
can produce significant savings.
A voice/data multiplexer simultaneously
transmits digitized voice and data over a single
digital
service.
Institute transmission
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Technology Track

220

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Modern Wireless Technology

Professional Training Program

Prof. Hesham ElBadawy

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National Telecommunication Institute

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Voice Network Concepts

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Getting Voice Onto

Variable magnetic field

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But due to this

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each user has its own selector

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1891 first automatic exchange: Strowger Switch by Almon B.

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National Telecommunication Institute

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National Telecommunication Institute

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An early exchange, call setup

After the line is located other relays connect the dial-tone

Selection is done by sending pulses that move the selectors

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Register-controlled setup (1920 -)

1960 and before

Efficient use of switches

PSTN exchange development

Stored program control, 1960s and 1970s (SPC)

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SPC: Stored program control

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Some features in PSTN of 60

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) with single sideband (SSB)

National Telecommunication Institute

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Some features of PSTN of 60 (cont.)

Operation and maintenance

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*nowadays in ISDN & PLMN: common channel signaling (CCS): SS7

Present-day PSTN terminals1

Local loop data extensions

Means here interfaces to other nets & equipment

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Present-day PSTN services

Value-added services (telephonist-originated) services as

Supplementary services (Intelligent Terminal (IN)

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