UNIT I

ERRORS AND MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS

ERRORS
Error in measurement is a mathematical way to
show the uncertainty in the measurement.
It is the difference between the result of
the measurement and the true value of what you
were measuring.
SOURCE OF ERRORS
Faulty design of the instrument which directly
leads to the serious measurement errors.

ERRORS
Due to insufficient knowledge of the quantity to be
measured and design conditions can cause errors.
For

the

instruments

frequent

maintenance

is

necessary. If it is not done then error may occur.

If sudden changes in the parameter to be measured
then error may exist.
Unskilled operator of the instrument also can cause
serious errors.

ERRORS
Certain limitations while designing the instrument
can cause errors.
Loading effect-improper way of using the instrument
can cause errors.
Effect of environmental conditions, temperature
changes also can cause errors.

ERRORS
Proper care taken considering the source of
errors can help to reduce the percentage of
errors and to improve the accuracy of
measurements.

STATIC ERROR
Static error is defined as the difference of the
measured value and the true value of the quantity.
Mathematically we can write an expression of
error as, dA = Am - At
where dA is the static error,
Am is measured value and
At is true value.

STATIC ERROR
True Value
It is not possible to determine the true of quantity
by experiment means. True value may be defined
as the average value of an infinite number of
measured values, when average deviation due to
various contributing factor will approach to zero.

STATIC ERROR
Measured Value
It may be defined as the approximated value of true
value. It can be found out by taking means of several
measured readings during an experiment, by applying
suitable approximations on physical conditions.

It may be noted that the absolute value of error

cannot be determined as due to the fact that the true
value of quantity cannot be determined accurately.

TYPES OF ERRORS
Gross Error
Systematic Error
-Instrumental Error
-Environmental Error
-Observational Error
Random Error

TYPES OF ERRORS
Gross Errors
This category of errors includes all the human
mistakes while reading & recording . Mistakes in
calculating the errors also come under this category.
For example while taking the reading from the meter
of the instrument he may read 21 as 31. All these
types of error are come under this category.

TYPES OF ERRORS
Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable measures:
A proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data.
Also calculation of error should be done accurately.
By increasing the number of experimenters we can reduce
the gross errors. If each experimenter takes different reading
at different points, then by taking average of more readings
we can reduce the gross errors.

TYPES OF ERRORS
Systematic Errors
In order to understand these kinds of errors, let us
classify the systematic errors as
Instrumental Errors
These errors may be due to wrong construction,
calibration of the measuring instruments.
It may be arises due to friction or may be due to
hysteresis.

TYPES OF ERRORS
It also include the loading effect and misuse of the
instruments. Misuse of the instruments results in the
failure to the adjust the zero of instruments.
To minimize the gross errors
In measurement various correction factors must be
applied and in extreme condition instrument must be
re-calibrated carefully.

TYPES OF ERRORS
Environmental Errors
This type of error arises due to conditions external to
instrument. External condition includes temperature,
pressure, humidity or it may include external
magnetic field.

TYPES OF ERRORS
To minimize the environmental errors:
Try to maintain the temperature and humidity of the
laboratory constant by making some arrangements.
Ensure that there should not be any external magnetic
or electrostatic field around the instrument.

TYPES OF ERRORS
Random Errors
After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that
there are still some errors in measurement are left.
These errors are known as random errors. Some of
the reasons of the appearance of these errors are
known but still some reasons are unknown. Hence we
cannot fully eliminate these kinds of error.

TYPES OF ERRORS
Observational Errors
These types of errors are due wrong observations.
The wrong observations may be due to PARALLAX.
In order to minimize the PARALLAX error highly
accurate meters are required, provided with mirrored
scales.

MEASURING INSTRUMENT
ELECTROTHERMIC INSTRUMENTS
Hot Wire Instruments
Thermal Instruments
RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Half Wave Rectifier
Full Wave Rectifier
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENTS
RATIOMETER

ELECTROTHERMIC INSTRUMENTS
The operation of electrothermic instruments (or
thermal instruments) whose action depends upon the
heating effect of the current under measurement.
The main significance of such instruments is that they
can be used to measure current at very high
frequencies without much errors.

ELECTROTHERMIC INSTRUMENTS
These instruments are used for current
measurements at frequencies well above the
range of moving iron and electrodynamometer
type instruments.
These instruments can be used for precision
voltage measurement at moderate frequencies.

ELECTROTHERMIC INSTRUMENTS
Classification of Electrothermic Instruments
The electrothermic instruments are based on various thermoelectric effects which are used for measurement of current. There
are three main types of electrothermic instruments:
i) Hot wire instruments : Such instruments are based on the property
that when current passes through wire, the wire gets heated and
expands.

ELECTROTHERMIC INSTRUMENTS
ii) Thermocouple instruments : Such instruments are based on
the principle of thermocouple. When current passes through a
junction of two dissimilar metals, the junction gets heated and
e.m.f. is developed.
iii) Bolometer : Such instruments are based on the fact that when
current passes through circuit element, it gets heated. Due this
dimension changes and resistance of circuit element changes.

HOT WIRE INSTRUMENTS

An instrument that depends for its operation on the ex
pansion by heat of a wire carrying a current.

HOT WIRE INSTRUMENTS

CONSTRUCTION:
Hot wire of 0.1mm diameter is made of platinum iridium
so that it may withstand high temperatures without
deterioration on account of addition.
Hot wire w is stretched between a fixed point B and
certain adjustments points A.
Another wire WI of phosphor bronze is attached to
wire w at point c and other end of its fixed point D.

HOT WIRE INSTRUMENTS

A fine silk thread G is passes a round pulley E and
other end of its fixed to spring S.
A light pointer p and thin aluminum disc L are
carried by the spindle upon which pulley E is
mounted.

HOT WIRE INSTRUMENTS

WORKING:
The current to be measured through wire W, it expands
due to heating effect of the current and slack is produced in
it.
The slack in wire W causes slack in wire WI, which is
taken by the spring S through the silk thread G and the
moving system is rotated due to motion of pulley E.
Thus the pointer P is moved over a scale.

HOT WIRE INSTRUMENTS

DISADVANTAGES:
Instability due to stretching of wire.
Sluggish response.
High power consumption.
Inability to withstand overloads and mechanical
shocks.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
Thermocouple consists of two different metals which are
placed in contact with each other as shown in fig.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
First part is called the heater element because when
the current will flow through this, a heat is produced
and thus the temperature will increased at the
junction.
At this junction an emf is produced which is
approximately

proportional

to

difference of hot and cold junctions.

the

temperature

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
The emf produced is a DC voltage which is directly

proportional

to

root

mean

square

value

of

permanent magnet moving coil instrument

is

electric current.

connected with the second part to read the current

passing through the heater.
PMMC instrument has greater accuracy and sensitivity

towards the measurement of DC value.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
Thermocouple type instruments can be used for both
ac and DC applications.
It has greater accuracy in measuring the current and
voltages at very high frequency accurately.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
Temperature difference is mathematically related to
generated emf at the junction in thermocouple type of
instruments. Let us consider temperature of the heater
element be Ta and the temperature of cold metal be Tb.
Now it is found that the generated emf at the junction is
related to temperature difference as:

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
Where a and b are constant whose values completely depends
upon the type of metal we are using.
The above equation represents parabolic function.
The approximated value of a is from 40 to 50 micro volts or
more per degree Celsius rise in temperature and value of
constant b is very small and can be neglected if the air gap
field of permanent magnet moving coil is uniform.
Thus we can approximate the above temperature emf relation
as e = a(Ta - Tb), here we have assume b = 0.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
The current flowing through the heater coil produces
heat as I2R where I is root mean square value of
current, if we assume the temperature of cold junction
is maintained at room temperature then the rise in the
temperature of the hot junction will be equal to
temperature rise at the junction.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
Hence

we

can

write

(Ta-Tb)is

directly

proportional to I2R or we can say (Ta - Tb) = kI2R.

Now the deflection angle x in moving coil

instrument is equal to; x = Ke or x = K[a(T a - Tb)]

hence we can write k.K.a.I2R = k1I2, where k1 is
some constant.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
TYPES:
1.Contact Type: It has a separate heater which is shown
in the diagram.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
WORKING:
At the junction the electrical energy is being
converted to thermal energy in the heater element. A
portion of the heat is transferred to the hot junction
while most of the heat energy is dissipated away.
The heat energy which is transferred to hot junction is
again converted to electrical due to Seeback effect.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
Only a portion of electrical energy is converted into
mechanical energy which is used to produce a
deflecting torque.
The overall efficiency of the system is low thus the
instrument consumes high power.
So there is a requirement of highly accurate and
sensitive DC instrument.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
2.Non Contact Type:
In non contact type there is insulation between the
heating element and the thermocouple i.e. there no
direct contact between two. Due to this these
instruments are not much sensitive as compared
contact type.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
3.Vacuum Thermo-elements:
These types of instruments are mostly employed
for the measurement of electric current at very
high frequency of the order of 100 Mega hertz or
more as these instruments retain their accuracy
even at such high frequency.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
4.Bridge Type: These bridges are manufactured on the
ac ratings usually from 100 milli amperes to 1 amperes.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
In this two thermocouple are connected to form a
bridge .
There is no requirement of heating element, the
electric current which directly passing through the
thermocouple raises the temperature which is directly
proportional to the I2R losses.

The bridge works on balanced condition at which

there will be no current in the arm ab.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
The

connected

meter

will

show

the

potential difference between the junctions a

and b.
ADVANTAGES
The thermocouple type of instruments accurately
indicates the root mean square value of current and
voltages irrespective of the waveform.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
Thermocouple type of instruments give very accurate
reading even at high frequency, thus these types of
instruments are completely free from frequency
errors.
The measurement of quantity under these instruments
is not affected by stray magnetic fields.
These instruments are known for their high sensitivity

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
Usually for measuring the low value of current bridge
type of arrangement is used i.e. ranging from 0.5
Amperes to 20 Amperes while for measuring the
higher value of current, heater element is required to
retain accuracy.

THERMOCOUPLE INSTRUMENTS
DISADVANTAGES:
The over load capacity of thermocouple type of
instrument is small as compared with other
instruments.
Even fuse do not provide any protection because
heater wire may burn out before the fuse blows out.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Rectifier type instrument measures the alternating
voltage and current with the help of rectifying
elements

and

permanent magnet moving coil type of instruments.

The primary function of rectifier type of instruments
work as voltmeter.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
ADVANTAGES OVER OTHER INSTRUMENTS:
Cost of electrodynamometer type of instruments is quite high.
Rectifier

type

of

instruments

as

much

accurate

as

electrodynamometer type of instruments.

The thermocouple instruments are more delicate than the
rectifier type of instruments.
Thermocouple type of instruments is more widely used at
very high frequencies.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
IDEAL RECTIFYING ELEMENT:
A ideal rectifying element is one which offers zero
resistance if it is forward biased and offers infinite
resistance if it is reversed biased.
It is used to rectify the voltages (rectification means
to convert an alternating quantity into direct quantity
i.e. AC to DC).

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
IDEAL RECTIFYING ELEMENT:

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
In the given circuit diagram the ideal diode is

connected in series with the voltage source and load

resistance.
Diode is forward biased by connecting the positive

terminal of the battery with anode and negative

terminal with cathode.

Due to forward biased it offers zero electrical

resistance path and thus behaves as short circuited.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Diode is reverse biased by connecting the negative
terminal of the battery with the anode terminal and
positive terminal of the battery to the cathode
terminal of the diode.
Due to reverse biased it offers infinite electrical
resistance and thus it behaves as open circuit.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
The voltage current characteristic is
shown.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
The practical rectifying element is used instead of
ideal one.

Practical rectifying element is having some finite

forward blocking voltage and high reverse blocking
voltage.

When forward biased it does not conduct till the

applied voltage is not greater the threshold voltage

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Due to reverse biased it offers finite resistance and
the negative voltage till the applied voltage becomes
equal to reverse break down voltage and thus it
behaves as open circuit.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
The voltage current characteristic is shown.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Half Wave Rectifier Circuits :
Rectifying element is connected in series with
sinusoidal

voltage source,

permanent magnet moving coil instrument

multiplier resistor.

and

the

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
The function of this multiplier electrical resistance is
to

limit

the

current

drawn

by

the

permanent magnet moving coil type of instrument.

It is very essential to limit the current drawn by the
permanent magnet moving coil instrument because if
the current exceeds the current rating of PMMC then
it destructs the instrument.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Operation into two parts.
In first part apply constant dc voltage V=Vdc to the above
circuit.
The DC voltage produces a full scale deflection of
magnitude I=V/(R+R1) where V is root mean square value
of voltage.
Resistance

of

multiplier

be

R,

and

permanent magnet moving coil instrument be R1.

that

of

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS

Consider second part

Apply an AC sinusoidal AC voltageto the circuit

v=Vm sin(wt).
During positive half cycle the rectifying element will
conduct and during negative half cycle it does not
conduct.
A Unidirectional pulsating voltage is produced at the
output of the rectifier.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
This pulsating voltage produce pulsating current and
hence a pulsating torque.
Because of inertia of moving parts,PMMC indicates a
deflection corresponding to average value of current
which is dependent upon the average value of the
applied voltage.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS

Calculate the average value of voltage

Integrate the instantaneous expression of the voltage

from 0 to 2 pi.
The calculated average value of voltage comes out to
be 0.318Vm, where Vm is average value of current.
Current through the meter is I=0.45V/(R+R1) where
V is root mean square value of voltage.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Resistance of multiplier be R, and that of
permanent magnet moving coil instrument be R1.
Thus we conclude that the sensitivity of the ac input
is 0.45 times the sensitivity of DC input in case of
half wave rectifier.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Full Wave Rectifier Circuits :
Bridge rectifier circuit is used.
Divide our operation into two parts.
Consider first part:
Apply a DC voltage source to the circuit.
The current through the meter is V/(R+R1) which causes the full scale
deflection of the meter. where V is the root mean square value of the
applied voltage, R is the resistance of the resistance multiplier and R 1
which is the electrical resistance of the instrument.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Bridge rectifier circuit is shown
D2

D3

D1

D4

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
The output wave is shown below.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Consider second part
Apply an AC sinusoidal AC voltage to the circuit
v=Vm sin(wt).
During positive half cycle the rectifying element
(D1 and D3) will conduct and during negative
half cycle the other two diodes will conduct.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Calculate the average value of voltage
Integrate the instantaneous expression of the voltage

from 0 to 2 pi.
The calculated average value of voltage comes out to

be 0.636Vm, where Vm is maximum value of current.

Current through the meter is I=0.9V/(R+R1) where V

is root mean square value of voltage.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Thus comparing it DC output the sensitivity with ac
input voltage source is 0.9 times the as in the case of
DC input voltage source.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
Advantages of Rectifier Type Instruments
The accuracy of rectifier type instrument is about 5
percent under normal operating condition.
The frequency range of operation can be extended to
high value.
They have uniform scale on the meter.

RECTIFIER INSTRUMENTS
They have low operating value of current and
voltages.
The loading effect of an ac rectifier voltmeter in both
the cases (i.e. half wave diode rectifier and full wave
diode rectifier) is high as compared to the loading
effects of DC voltmeters.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
It is a transfer instrument.
It is one which is calibrated with dc source and used
without any modifications for a.c measurement.
It consists of two pairs of fixed coil and one moving
coil and all the coils are connected in series.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
CONSTRUCTION PARTS:
1.Fixed Coil
2.Moving Coil
3.Controlling System
4.Moving System
5.Damping
6.Shielding
7.Scales

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
1.Fixed Coils
The field is produced by a fixed coil.
This coil is divided into two sections to give
a more uniform field near the centre and to
allow passage of the instrument shaft.
It is wound with heavy wire carrying the main
current in ammeters and wattmeter's.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
The wire is stranded where necessary to reduce eddy
current losses in conductors.
Coils are vanished and baked to form solid assembly.
These are then clamped in place against the coil
supports.
This makes the construction simple.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
2.Moving Coil
A single element instrument has one moving coil.
The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining
coil or else on a non-metallic former.

A metallic former cannot be used as eddy current

would be induced in it by the alternating field.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
Light but rigid construction is used for the moving coil.
It should be noted that both fixed and moving coils are
air cored.
3.Controlling system
The controlling torque is provided by two control
springs.
These springs act as leads to the moving coil.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
4.Moving System
The moving coil is mounted on an aluminum spindle.
The moving system also carries the counter weights
and truss type pointer.
Sometimes a suspension may be used in case a high
sensitivity is desired

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
5.Damping system
Damping torque is provided by air friction damping
by a pair of aluminum vanes, attached to the spindle
at the bottom.
These vanes move in sector shaped chambers.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
Eddy current damping cannot be used in these
instruments as the operating field is very weak (on
account of the fact that the coils are air cored) and
any introduction of a permanent magnet required for
eddy current damping would distort the operating
magnetic field of the instrument.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
6.Shielding
The field produced by the fixed coils is somewhat
weaker than in other types of instruments It is nearly
0.005 to 0.006 wb/m*m.
In D.C. Measurements even the earth magnetic field
may affect the readings.
Thus it is necessary to shield an electrodynamometer
type instrument from the effect of stray magnetic
fields

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
Air cored electrodynamometer type instruments are
protected

against

external

magnetic fields

by

enclosing them in a casing of high permeability alloy.

This shunts external magnetic fields around the

instrument mechanism and minimizes their effects on
the indication.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
7.Cases and Scales

Laboratory

standard

instruments

are

usually

contained in highly polished wooden cases.

These cases are so constructed as to remain

dimensionally stable over long periods of time.

The glass is coated with some conducting material to

completely remove the electrostatic effects.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS

Adjustable leveling screws support the case.

A spirit level is also provided to ensure proper leveling.

The scales are hand drawn, using machine sub-dividing
equipment.

Diagonal lines for fine sub-division are usually drawn

for main markings on the scale.

Most of the high-precision instruments have a 300 mm

scale with 100, 120 or 150 divisions.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
Working principle:
The working principle of this instrument by taking up a
PMMC and how it would behaves on a.c.
If a.c supply is given, it would have torque in one
direction during one half of the cycle and an equal
effect in the opposite direction.
The pointer does not go very far in either direction but
stays around zero.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
To reverse the direction of the flux each time the
current through the movable coil reverses, a
unidirectional torque would be produced for both
positive and negative halves of the cycle.
The field can be made to reverse simultaneously with
the current in the movable coil if the field (fixed) coil
is connected in series with the movable coil.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
Torque Equation
Let

i1 = Instantaneous value of current in fixed coil

i2 = Instantaneous value of current in moving coil

L1 =

Self
L2

inductance
self

inductance

of
of

fixed

coil

moving

coil

M = Mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils

The electrodynamometer instrument can be represented by an
equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig.2.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS

From the principle of conversation of energy,

Energy input = Energy stored + Mechanical energy

Mechanical energy = Energy input - Energy stored
Subtraction (2) from equation (1),

The self inductance L1 and L2 are constant and hence dL1 and
dL2 are zero.
Mechanical energy = i1 i2 dM

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
If Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and d is
the change in the deflection then
Mechanical energy = Mechanical workdone
= Ti d
i1 i2 d M = Ti d
This

is the expression for the instantaneous deflection torque. Let

us see its operation on a.c. and d.c.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
D.C. operation : For d.c current of I1 and I2,
The controlling torque is provided by springs hence

Thus the deflection is proportional to the product of the two

currents and the rate of change of mutual inductance.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
A.C. operation : In a.c. operation, the total deflecting
torque

over

cycle

must

be

obtained

integrating Ti over one period.

Average deflecting torque over one cycle is,

by

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
Now if two currents are sinusoidal and displaced by a
phase angle then

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
where i1, i2 are the r.m.s. values of the two currents as,

Thus the deflection is decided by the product of r.m.s.

values of two currents, cosine of the phase angle (power
factor) and rate of change of mutual inductance.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS

ADVANTAGES:
Good Accuracy

Low Power Consumption

Can be Used For Both A.C And D.C
Light In Weight
Free From Hysteresis Errors
DISADVANTAGES:
More Expensive
Non Uniform Scale
Introduce Frictional Losses