HYDROGEOLOGY

Is the branch of Geology that is realated

with the study of groudwater, its origin,
occurrence, movement and geological
processes of the surfce water.
River Morphology
Groundwater Hydrology

River Channel Morphology

River: A natural path defined by the flow of water and carry
sediments that exists along its path. Rivers are mostly originates
from high hills or mountains.

Glacial melting, groundwater and precipitation.

Small rivers are known as streams or rivulet

Branches of major river-tributaries

Place where two or more rivers join or meet with each

other is called cofluence.
Geological action/ functions of the river:

Erosion

Transportation
Deposition

Erosion: The process of breaking down or wearing of rock due to

geomorphic agent like moving water or glaciers or wind. May be
lateral or vertical erosion. Mechanical or Chemical
Process: Abrasion, Hydraulic Action, Attrition, Corrosion (dissolve)
Transportation: The process of carrying eroded materials towards
downstream along with the flow of running water. Transportation
capacity mainly depends on velocity of water, topography,
morphology and sediment size.
Sediment carried as: Bed load, Suspension load, Solution
materials

Process:
Traction - large boulders and rocks are rolled along the river bed.
Saltation - small pebbles and stones are bounced along the river
bed.
Suspension - fine light material is carried along in the water.
Solution - minerals are dissolved in the water and carried along in
solution.

Deposition: The process of accumulation of transported

materials when transportation capacity reduces. Deposition
takes place when velocity of river decrease, decrease
gradient and change in river morphology.

Stream order
Horton (1945), Schumm (1956)

Drainage patterns:
A plan of a river system in a drainage basin. Each pattern
reflects geological structure, prevailing direction of a slope, etc
a: dendritic; b: parallel; c: rectangular; d: trellised; e: radial; f: annular

Sub-watershed area with drainage order

A watershed or drainage basin is the area of land where all of the water that is
under it or drains off.

Types of river channels

(Morphology/Forms)

Straight river:
The river that follows straight path
Originated at the high or steep topography.
Gradient high
Velocity high
High erosion (mainly scouring than side cutting) and
transportation capacity but low depositional capacity
Mostly dominated at high hills and mountains

Meandering river
The river that follow zigzag path
Originted at moderate topography
Moderate gradient, medium velocity
Dominated by flood plain
Side cutting is high
Erosion and deposition occurs simultantly
Channel shifted

Braided river
Bifurcated into several branches and may
converted to single
Originated at very low relief
Low gradient, low velocity
Depositional rate high
Channel shifted
Dominated with channel bars

Features developed by River

Point bar deposit

Mid bar deposit
Flood plain
Terrace
Oxbow lake
Allunial fan
Delta

Flood plain

Depositional bank

Cut bank

Features developed by River

Ox bow lake
developed in meandering channel
system
Neck of meandering loop become
narrow due to erosion (outer bank)
and deposition (inner bank)process
Due to high flood, the river follows the
shortest path leaving the curve
water body known as oxbow lake.

Mississippi River

Alluvial fan:

When a river flows from high

steep hills to the gentle slope, its velocity
suddenly drop and the huge volume of
sediments carried by the river are deposite
giving rise to huge,broad, cone or fan like
structure known as alluvial fan.

Delta:

Delta is also a similar featurel like an

alluval fan but it is form where the river enters in
to sea. Velocity reduces rapidely and deposition
of fine sediments is high.

River Nile

Engineering significants
Straight River
Meandering River
Braided River

Groundwater/ Subsurface water

Water that exist below the earths surface
Major sources
Precipitation
Surface water like rivers, streams, ponds etc
Irrigation

Hydrological Cycle

Vertical distribution of water

Zone of aeration/Vadose
zone- water unsaturated
zone, consists of air and
water,
water
cant
be
extracted, divided in 3 zones

Saturation zone/Ground
water zone- groundwater
extraction zone, fully
saturated

Factors controlling occurrence and

movement of Groundwater

Climate
Topography
Porosity
Permeability
Hydraulic Gradient
Hydraulic Conductivity

1. Porosity

Types of porosity

Ratio of voids to the total volume of an aquifer.

= V voids/V total*100
Primary
Secondary

Factors affecting porosity

Sorting
Grain shape

2. Permeability

Capacity of the rock or sediment to transmit

groundwater

WELL SORTED
Coarse (sand-gravel)

POORLY SORTED
Coarse - Fine

WELL SORTED
Fine (silt-clay)

Permeability

High

Low

S. Hughes, 2003

Porosity and permeability of selected earth materials

Porosity

Permeability

Material
Unconsolidated
Clay
Sand
Gravel
Gravel and sand

45
35
25
20

0.041
32.8
205.0
82.0

Rock
Sandstone
Dense limestone or shale
Granite

15
5
1

28.7
0.041
0.0041

S. Hughes, 2003

3. Hydraulic Gradient (I)

The head different two points and its distance

h1-h2/L

4. Hydraulic Conductivity (K)

Property of both porous medium and fluid flow

through porous medium
Measured in meters/day or meters/sec

 Aquifer
Water bearing layer of the rock or sediment that store
water and can transmit sufficient quantity. Also known
as Groundwater reservoir. eg: sand and gravel layer,
limestone etc
Unconfined aquifer-lies between zone of aeration and
impermeable strata
Confined aquifer-sandwich between impermeable strata
Leaky aquifer-exists between aquitards

Confining bed
An impermeable or less permeable layer lies between
aquifer
Aquitard; sandy clay
Aquiclude: clay
Aquifuge: massive rock like granite

 Water table
The surface between vadose zone and the
zone of saturation

Peizometric level
Level at which water is driven in confined
aquifer

Artesian well
If the water level in the well driven in a
confined aquifer will freely flow without the aid
of pump, such type of well is called artesian
well.

Un
co
nfi
ne
d

Un
co
nfi
ne
d

Un
co
nf i
ne
d

Springs
Spring-

A natural flow of ground water from underground

through pores, cracks, joints or faults where water table
intersects ground surface.
Depression spring are formed at ground surface when water
table reaches the surface due to topographic undulations.
Discharge low, may be seasonal.
Contact springs are formed where permeable rocks overlie
rocks of low permeability. A lithological contact is usually
marked by a line of springs.
Artesian springs are formed due to releases of water under
pressure from confining bed
Fracture springs occur due to existence of jointed or
permeable fracture zones in low permeability rocks. Movement
of groundwater is mainly through fractures and cracks. Springs
are formed where these fractures intersect the land surface.

Contact Spring
Depression Spring

Artesian Spring

Fracture Spring

Reservoir
Reservoir is a natural or artificial
storage of water.

Well

Well:

A well is a hole as shaft usually vertically

excavated in the earth for bringing groundwater to the
surface.
Shallow well- upto 50m
Deep well- above 50m
Infiltration
Percolation
Recharge
Discharge

General Hydrology of Nepal

No groundwater potential zone:
The unfractured granite, gneiss and metasediments of higher
metamorphic grade in midland and higher Himalaya, the rest
of the geology has potential for groundwater
Highly productive aquifer:
loose sediments of Terai and inner Terai , karstified and
fractured carbonate rocks of midland and Tethys group are
considered to be highly productive aquifers
Moderately productive aquifer:
The unconsolidated deposits of Kathmandu and Surkhet
Valleys , Siwalik rocks , non karstic but fractured carbonate
rocks in Lesser Himalaya, Crystalline Complex and Tethys
group are interpreted as moderately productive aquifers.

Darcys Law
Darcys Law states that the rate of fluid flow velocity (V)
through a porous medium is
I.Directly proportional to the head different in hydraulic
head (h1-h2).
II.Inversely proportional to the length of the column (L)
The rate at which groundwater moves through the saturated zone depends on the
permeability of the rock and the hydraulic gradient. The hydraulic gradient is defined as
the difference in elevation divided by the distance between two points on the water table.
Velocity, V, is then:
V = K(h2 - h1)/L where K is the coefficient of permeability.
If we multiply this expression by the area, A, through which the water is moving, then we
get the discharge, Q. Q = AK(h2 - h1)/L, which is Darcy's Law.