MIGRATION

PRIMARY MIGRATION (EXPULSION)

SECONDARY MIGRATION

MIGRATION

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP

Primary Migration
Expulsion from the Source Rock

Migration - Saturation Threshold Theory

Expulsion from the Source Rock

1. At present no general methods for establishing the percent
of generated bitument that migrated out of a source rocks

2. Oil to source rocks correlation provide direct indicator of

migration

3. Assume Hc generation drives migration process

need minimum bitument quantity before expulsion occur
Need to saturarate absorbers in the rock and fill the pore
system
Momper (1978) estimate on average requires 850 ppm

Expulsion from the Source Rock

The mechanism of expulsion is still the subject of
debate.
One method is Porosity Saturation:
As Maturation progresses, organic matter is transformed
to oil. The generated oil fills pore spaces created by
the destruction of kerogen.
1. Oil fills the pore spaces, overcomes capillary
resistance and begins to expel.
2. Overpressure caused by the conversion of kerogen to
oil and gas microfractures the rock and expels the
fluid phase.
3. In a lean source rock, not enough oil may be generated
to fill the pore spaces. With continued burial, this
trapped oil may crack to gas

Expulsion from the Source Rock

Certain kerogens undergo generation at
earlier maturity due to lower activation
energies.
These same kerogens can be expected
to undergo earlier expulsion.
Richer source rocks will accumulate
greater volumes earlier that lean source
rocks and, hence, begin to expel earlier.

Expulsion from the Source Rock

Another controlling factor is the sedimentary
geometry of the source rocks.
The expulsion efficiency is highest when the
source rocks are thin and hydrocarbons have a
short distance to migrate to more permeable
carrier beds (meters, rather than tens of
meters).
Intercalated sandstones and shales would
provide much greater expulsion efficiency than
thicker bedded shales and sands.

Expulsion from the Source Rock

Rocks that are brittle and overpressured are
likely to fracture
which dramatically enhances
expulsion efficiency.

Expulsion from
the Source Rock
The relationship
between
Production Index
and
Transformation
Ratio

PI=S1(measured)/S1(orig)+S2(orig)

TR = S1(original)/S1(orig)+S2(orig)

Expulsion from the Source Rock

The area between the curves represents
percent product expelled. This can actually
be used as a calibrant.
The hydrocarbon content of a rock consists of
2 things:
1.Free hydro-carbons already present (S1) and
2.Hydrocarbons yet to be created from the
kerogen (S2).

Expulsion from the Source Rock

S1 and S2 in the denominator is always equal to 1.
1. An immature source rock will have essentially
no S1 which means the PI is zero.
2. A mature source rock will have essentially no S2
which means the PI should be one....if no
expulsion occurs.
3. If a source rock never expels the PI is nothing
more than the transformation ratio
S1(original)/S1(original)+S2(original)).

Expulsion from the Source Rock

As expulsion occurs, free hydrocarbons escape the
rock which means
S1(measured) will always be less than S1(original).
So the PI in a maturing source rock will always be
less than one but greater than zero.

Expulsion from the Source Rock

Plotting 'transformation ratio' and 'production
index' on an X vs. Depth curve will show :
The percentage of hydrocarbons that have
been expelled.
Plot the measured (actually calculated PI) to
calibrate.

EXPULSION EFFICIENCY
Expulsion efficiency
Temperature 120-150 C strongly dependent of original richness
Minimum petroleum saturation in the source rock (about 40%) is
required before efficient expulsion take place.
Rich source rocks > 5kg/ton, TOC>1.5 very efficient 60-90% of total
petroleum generated being expelled.
Lean source rocks <5kg/ton, TOC<1.5% expulsion efficiency is
much lower most of the generated oil remain in the source rocks.
Raising Temperature cracked to gas and expulsion can be very
efficient
(Cooles, Mackenzie and Qiugley 1986)

EXPULSION EFFICIENCY

Expulsion Efficiency
as a Function of Source Rock Richness
Certain kerogens undergo
generation at earlier maturity
due to lower activation
energies.
These same kerogens can be
expected to undergo earlier
expulsion.
Richer source rocks will
accumulate greater volumes
earlier that lean source rocks
and begin to expel earlier.

EXPULSION EFFICIENCY

Variation of
expulsion
efficiencies for
oil, gas, and
condensate
with different
kerogen types

Mackenzie &
Quigley, 1988

EXPULSION EFFICIENCY
RICH SOURCE ROCKS
CONTAINING MAINLY
LABILE KEROGEN

PGI= PETROLEUM GENERATION

INDEX
IS THE FRACTION OF
PETROLEUM PRONE ORGANIC
MATER THAT HAS BEEN
TRANSFORM INTO PETROLEUM

LEAN SOURCE ROCKS

COMPRISING LABILE
KEROGEN

PEE = PETROLEUM EXPULSION

EFFICIENCY
IS THE FRACTION OF
PETROLEUM FLUIDS
GENERATED IN THE SOURCE
ROCKS THAT HAVE BEEN
EXPELLED

SOURCE ROCKS CONTAIN

MOSTLY REFRACTORY
KEROGEN

(Mackenzie and Qiugley 1988)

EXPULSION EFFICIENCY
Lean source rocks

Rich source rocks

(Cooles, Mackenzie and Qiugley 1986)

Expulsion efficiency
Lean

Initial Condition

T=120-150 C
Oil window

T >150 C
Gas window

rich

EXPULSION EFFICIENCY

Different Types of Reservoired Oils

API gravity = (141.5/density) - 131.5

Hydrocarbons can be divided into 4 groups, dependent

upon physical properties:
GAS (generally methane, CH4)
CONDENSATE (wet gases in reservoir, liquid at
surface)
OIL (liquid: light, medium, and heavy oils)
MINERAL HYDROCARBONS (solids: bitumen,
asphalts, etc.)
Each type derives from a different combination of
processes.

MIGRATION

MIGRATION

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
SECONDARY MIGRATION CONCENTRATES SUBSURFACE PETROLEUM
INTO SPECIFIC SITES (TRAPS) WHERE IT MAY BE COMMERCIALLY
EXTRATED.

THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY MIGRATION (OUT OF THE

SORCE ROCK) AND SECONDARY MIGRATION (TROUGH CARRIER BED)
IS THE POROSITY, PERMEABILITY, PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION TROUGH
WHICH MIGRATION TAKE PLACE.

END POINT OF SECONDARY MIGRATION

TRAPS
SEEPAGES

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
KNOWLEDGE OF THE MECHANIC OF SECONDARY MIGRATION IS IMPORTANT IN
THE GENERAL UNDERSTANDING OF ACTIVE CHARGE SYSTEM, SPECIALLY IN:

TRACING AND PREDICTING MIGRATION PATHWAYS

AREA RECEIVING PETROLEUM CHARGE

INTERPERETING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SUBSURFACE PETROLEUM

SHOWS AND SURFACE SEEPAGES.

ESTIMATING SEAL CAPACITY IN BOTH STRUCTURAL AND

STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS

MAIN DRIVING FORCE FORCE BEHIND SECONDARY MIGRATION ARE:

BUOYANCY

PORE PRESSURE GRADIENT: High P Low P

MAIN RESTRICTING FORCES TO SECONDARY MIGRATION IS THE

CAPILARY PRESSURE
WHICH INCREASE AS PORE SIZE BECOME SMALLER

ENTRAPMENT WHEN CAPILLARY PRESSURE EXCEEDS THE DRIVING

FORCES.

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
BUYANCY AS DRIVING FORCE IN
SCONDARY MIGRATION .
BUOYANCY IS THE PRESSURE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A POINT IN
THE PETROLEUM COLOUMN AND
THE SURROUNDING PORE WATER.
IT IS A FUNCTION OF A PETROLEUMWATER DENSITY DIFFERENCE AND
THE HEIGHT OF THE PETROLEUM
COLOUMN.
A LARGE BUOYANCY PRESSURE
MAY DEVELOP AT THE TOPS OF
LARGE, LOW DENSITY (GAS)
PETROLEUM COLOUMNS.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS AT
POINT TROUGHOUT THE
ETROLEUM COLOUMN DEFINE A
PETROLEUM PRESSURE GRADIENT
THIS INTERSECT THE HYDROSTATIC
GRADIENT AT THE PETROLEUMWATER CONTACT.

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
SECONDARY MIGRATION
HYDROSTATIC CONDITION
BUOYANCY IS THE ONLY DRIVING FORCE

HYDRODYNAMIC CONDITION
1. COULD INHIBIT OR ASSIST SECONDARY MIGRATION
2. AFFECTING THE DIRECTION AND RATE OF MIGRATION
3. INCREASING OR DECREASING THE DRIVING PRESSURES
AGAINST VERTICAL OR LATERAL SEALS
4. TILTING PETROLEUM WATER CONTACTS AND DISPLACING
PETROLEUM ACCUMULATION (OFF THE CREST OF STRUCTURAL
CLOSURE

BUOYANCY
FORCE

POTENSIAL PLANE
HYDRODYNAMIC
FORCE

HYDRODINAMIC
FLOW

HYDRODINAMIC TRAP
TILTING HC CONTACT

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
RESTRICTING FORCE IN SECONDARY MIGRATION
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
DISPLACEMENT PRESSURE
INJECTION PRESSURE
FUNCTION OF THE SIZE (RADIUS) OF PORE THROAT
INTERFACIAL SURFACE TENSION BETWEEN THE WATER AND PETROLEUM AND
WETTABILITY OF THE PETROLEUM-WATER-ROCK SYSTEM

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
RESISTANT FORCE IN
SECONDARY HYDROCARBON
MIGRATION.
HIGHER PRESSURE ARE
NEEDED TO FORCE
PETROLEUM GLOBULES
TROUGH SMALLER PORES
(AFTER PURCELL 1949 IN
SCHOWALTER 1976)

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
INTERFACIAL TENSION
DEPENDS ON THE PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM AND WATER, AND
IS INDEPENDENT OF THE ROCK CHARACTERISTIC
FUNCTION PRIMARY OF THE PETROLEUM COMPOSITION AND
TEMPERATUREDECREASES WITH INCREASING TEMPERATURE
GAS-WATER INTERFACIAL TENSIONS ARE GENERALLY HIGHER
THAN THOSE FOR OIL WATER
FOR THE SAME ROCK DISPLACEMENT PRESSURE
FOR GAS > FOR OIL
THE BUOYANCY PRESSURES ARE NORMALLY GREATER FOR GAS.
WETTABILITY IS FUNCTION OF THE PETROLEUM WATER AND ROCK
MOST ROCK SURFACES ARE WATER WET

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
PORE SIZES ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT
ON SECONDARY MIGRATION AND
ENTRAPMENT
PORE SIZES CAN BE ESTIMATED
THIN SECTION
SEM
DISPLACEMENT PRESSUREMICP

Idealized sandstone porosity system showing four basic pore types: intergranular,
microporosity, dissolution, and fracture.

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
CAPILLARY PRESSURE =21/Rt1/Rb)

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
Critical petroleum height = Ypc

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
MIGRATION PATHWAYS
DRIVING FORCE BUOYANCY
PETROLEUM MIGRATION DIRECTION STEEPEST SLOPE
PEPENDICULAR TO STRUCTURAL CONTOURS OR TRUE DIP DIRECTION
LINE DRAWN AT RIGHT ANGLES TO STRUCTURAL CONTOURS OF THE
TOP CARRIER BED/BASE SEAL HORIZON ORTHO CONTOURS
ORTHOCONTOUR MAP ILLUSTRATE HYDROCARBONS MIGRATION
PATHWAYS FROM ITS KITCHEN AREA
ILLUSTRATE FOCUSING AND DE-FOCUSING EFFECTS OF STRUCTURAL
FEATURES IN PROSPECT DRAINAGE AREA

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
MIGRATION PATHWAYS
LATERAL MIGRATION
SHORT DISTANCE
LONG DISTANCE
LONG DISTANCE MIGRATION PROSPECT S REMOTE FROM
AREA OF MATURE SOURCE ROCKS (KITCHENS AREA )
THE STRUCTURAL EFFECTS MAY STRONGLY INFLUENCE THE
PATTERN OF HYDROCARBON CHARGE
PETROLEUM FLOW CAN BE SPLIT WHEN ENCOUNTERING A LOW
AND CONCENTRATED ALONG REGIONAL HIGH
GEOMETRY OF THE KITCHEN EFFECT PETROLEUM CHARGE
VOLUMES

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
MIGRATION PATHWAYS
ORTHOCONTOURS ARE CONSTRUCTED FOR THE ACTUAL
TIME OF SECONDARY MIGRATION.
PRESENT DAY STRUCTURE MAPS MAY BE USED TO MODEL
PRESENT DAY MIGRATION.
ISOPACHING (3-D DECOMPACTION) CAN BE USED TO
PRODUCE PALEOSTRUCTURE MAP AND USED TO
MODEL PALEO MIGRATION

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
OTHER FACTORS:
SEALING FAULT ; MAY DEFLECT PETROLEUM FLOW LATERALLY.

NON SEALING FAULTS; ALLOWS PETROLEUM TO FLOW ACROSS THE

FAULT INTO JUXTAPOSE PERMEABLE BED AT DIFFERENT
STRATIGRAPHIC LEVEL.
NEEDS A DIFFERENT STRUCTURE MAP FOR SECONDARY
MIGRATION MODELLING.

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CARRIER BEDS CAUSED BY LATERAL

STRATIGRAPHIC CHANGES BY SANDING OUT OF SHALE SEAL.

THE ORTHOCONTOUR MAP SHOULD BE CONSTRUCTED ONLY AS

FAR AS ASEAL PERSIST

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP
SECONDARY MIGRATION LOSSES
TWO DISTINCT HABITATS:
MINIATUR TRAPSDEAD ENDS ALONG THE MIGRATION ROUTE
PRODUCED BY FAULTED AND DIP CLOSED GEOMETRIES AND
STRATIGRAPHIC CHANGES. TRAP COULD BE OBSERVABLE
BUT NO COMMERCIAL

RESIDUAL PETROLEUM SATURATION IN THE PORE OF

CARRIER BED, TRAPPED BY CAPILLARY FORCES 30% OF
THE PORE VOLUME.

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP

SECONDARY MIGRATION
TROUGH CARRIER BED TO TRAP

Elevation/ECHUCA SHOALS/1D Grid Output=MWell Grid @ 3 (my)

SHEARWAT

CMP=2D;TH=THF;MAT=LL
TI=2;KEXP=Sat;PRM=PL

X-Section 1

DI=1000

8824000
0
MINOTAUR-1ST2

_user_well_5

8800000

BASILISK-1
WALLAROO-1ST
-1000

NABARLEK-1
FOHN-1ST
_user_well_0

-2000
_user_well_2

8750000

Elevation (m)

Y (m)

_user_well_1

_user_well_3
DARWINIA-1

_user_well_4

-3000
JACARANDA-1

_user_well_7
-4000
8700000

CURLEW-1-1

X-Section 1'

SCHILLING-1

-5000

8670000
274000

280000

300000

320000

340000

X (m)

360000

380000

398000

_use