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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Key Concept 1: How Skill is

Acquired
Sub-Concept 3 The Learning Process
in Acquiring Skill

ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

When learning a new skill the brain must
take in, process and use a lot of
information about the skill and
environment. We use a simple model to
demonstrate what is happening when
we are performing a skill as a means to
understanding the process involved in
learning physical skills.

The models to the left and below

presents us with an understanding of the
process involved.

Towards Better Coaching Australian Coaching

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired
Text Page 9 - 10
Council 1979

ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

Information Processing Model

INPUT

DECISION MAKING

OUTPUT

FEEDBACK

Phase 1 The INPUT Stage this is where performers gather information that
will help them execute the skill. To do this the performers use their SENSES
and INTERNAL MECHANISMS.
What do you understand by the terms proprioceptors / kinesthetic
awareness?
Nerve endings under the skin give a sense of touch and provides
kinesthetic awareness. This is why it is possible to bounce a basketball
without actually watching the ball. Proprioception can also refer to an
ability to know where body parts are in relation to each other or the
ground without watching which allows athletes like gymnasts to land
comfortably on their feet after spinning through the air.

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

During the Input phase, athletes are gathering information to be processed by the brain
referred to as CUES.

This could include:

W h e r e is t h e
o p p o n e n t?

H o w h a rd w a s
t h e b a ll h it ?

W h e r e is t h e b a ll?

W h a t a n g le is t h e
b a ll c o m in g ?

W h e r e is t h e w in d
c o m in g f r o m ?

W h e r e is t h e s u n
in r e la t io n t o m e ?

Input
Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

Factors
Factors Affecting
Affecting
Signal
Signal Detection
Detection

INPUT PHASE
Factors that influence a players ability to detect signals or cues
Ability of the
Senses

Use of sight, hearing, smelling,

tasting and feeling

Speed of Cue

A slow moving cue is more easily

detected

Strength of Cue

A strong cue is more easily

detected i.e. a white ball against a
black background

Noise

Noise can be a distraction, providing

non-essential cues to be processed

Level of Arousal

Optimal level of Arousal leads to

Optimal Performance

nce this preliminary information has been gathered we have to make sense of it:

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

S t im u li
6

S t im u li
7
S t im u li
5

Selective Attention
The amount of information being handled by the brain

S t im u li
4

determines the speed of the response. For example if we had to

S t im u li
3

process 10 pieces of information it would take longer than if we

had to process 5. Beginners take longer to initiate a response

S t im u li
2

S t im u li
1

to cues because they take in a lot of irrelevant information.

They lack the ability to distinguish what is important and what
isnt skilled performance have this ability.

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

Describe a relationship seen in the
graph.
As the number of responses to
stimulus increases from 1 to 10, the
time taken to respond increases
from 0.1 seconds to 0.7 seconds.
Therefore, the more stimuli, the
longer it takes to react.

HICKS LAW
0.7
0.6

Choice Reaction Time (seconds)

0.5
0.4
0.3

0.2
Using Data from the graph, explain
how increasing the number of
0.1
stimulus from 4 choices to 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
alternatives affects the choice
Number of responses to stimulus available
reaction time (seconds).
When the performer must take in
and respond to 10 stimuli, the choice
reaction time is recorded at 0.7
seconds. the
Thisimpact
is a much
Describe
of a slower
greater number of stimulus on the execution of skills.
choiceareaction
compared
to the
When
greater time
number
of stimulus
need to be processed, it takes longer for the
performer to
having
to all
process
performer
take in
of the4necessary information before assessing all of their
stimuli, and
as the
choice
reaction
time
options
then
executing
a response.
It is likely that skills will be rushed with
is 0.3
seconds.
less
time
available to make a decision leading to skill errors and/or poor decision
making.

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

Psychological Refractory Period

The time between two stimuli being processed

that is the time it takes to process stimulus 1 then
stimulus 2 is referred to as the psychological
refractory period. It is why feints, fakes or
dummy moves work in team games to trick
opponents.
During a fake pass or dummy, a defender will
read the cues presented to them that indicate
their opponent is going to pass the ball or move in
a certain direction and if the attacker has
presented false cues, it takes time to register that
the player is no longer performing that action.
As seen in the diagram, information is processed
into a form that the brain can use. The brain then
selects a response (action) to execute based on
this information and utilising memory what was
done in similar situations in the past.

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

V is io n

T ouch

S m e ll

H e a rin g

Stimulusentersthebrainwhereitis
S t i m u l u s e n e t e r s t h e b r a i n
w h e r e identified
i t i s i d e n t i f i e d .

R e s p o n s e is s e l e c t e d
R e s p o n s e i s p r o g r a m m e d

A c tio n s a r e u n d e r ta k e n in
a s e r ia l fa s h io n - th a t is a t
a ro u n d 3 every seco n d .

A c ti o n 1

A c ti o n 2

A c ti o n 3

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

With reference to the psychological refractory
period, explain how a look-away pass such as the
one performed in the diagram to the right is less
likely to result in a turnover when passed directly
to a team mate.
The player with the ball has sent cues to the
defending players to indicate that they are going
to perform one action (perhaps perform a lay-up)
which the defensive players will read and then
respond to the cues presented. The attacking
player has then passed the ball to a team-mate and
created a second set of cues that defenders must
process before they can choose a response. The
time it takes to recognise a set of cues as being
false and respond to a second set of cues is known
as the psychological refractory period.
As the defence could not predict or read the cues
effectively, the pass is more likely to be successful.
It will also provide the receiving player more time
to decide their own response as the defence would
not have been expecting them to end up with the
ball.
Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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The Learning Process in

Output Phase

ACHPER (SA)
2014

Acquiring Skill

Phase 3 as seen below involves the execution of the response selected and organised
during the decision making phase of the process the OUTPUT phase.
The effectors are the mechanisms that make the response possible. They are responsible
for (1) Organising
(2) Initiating and (3) Controlling the motor program selected as a response.
In recall schema we have learnt how to do a
R e c a ll S c h e m a
movement based on a stimulus, in this case the
position of an opponent.
A

Player 1 sees the opponent and from experience

and practice knows if he is to kick the ball without
him getting it, he must place it to spot A.
In recognition schema we have learnt how to do a
P la y e r 1
P la y e r 2
movement based on a stimulus, in this case the
position of an opponent, but we now can execute
some flexibility based on experience and practice
R e c o g n itio n S c h e m a

B
X
Player 1 sees the opponent in position A and from
A
experience and practice knows if he is to kick the ball
without him getting must place it to spot X. However
just before player 1 executes the kick player 2 moves
to position B.
P la y e r 1
P la y e r 2

Using recognition schema (flexibility of execution)

Player A adjusts the kick down the line to compensate
for the movement of the defender or player B.
Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

Information Processing Model
Fill in the boxes with the correct sequence

INPUT

DECISION MAKING

OUTPUT

FEEDBACK

Using the information processing model above describe how information

processing mechanisms 1, 2 & 3 function when a tennis player serves, as seen in
the picture below. Use specific Tennis examples that relate to the diagram.
Input the player could take in all available cues using their senses before
serving; position of opponent on receiving end, wind, sun, crowd noise, feel of the
racket, feel of the ball, court surface, game score, whether it is first or second
serve, recall of previous points to identify strengths and weaknesses of
opponent, smell of food cooking at the canteen etc.
Decision Making the options available to the player include: speed of serve, type
of spin , hit to forehand, backhand or at the body of the opponent,
Output the player will decide upon an appropriate response i.e. heavy top spin
serve hit quickly at the body of the opponent.
Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The
Process
in Acquiring
Skillto a tennis
ExplainLearning
how improving selective
attention
would be of assistance
player during the Input stage when returning the serve.
Input if the service receiver can more effectively attend to only the relevant cues
and ignore irrelevant cues (improved selective attention) they will have less cues
to process before deciding upon a response. i.e. early detection of spin, speed,
bounce etc. and ignore score, crowd, environment. With less cues to process,
information processing will occur faster and the player will have more time to
decide upon an appropriate return of serve and also more time to get into position
and execute a successful response.
Explain how improving one of the components of the model above will enhance the
performance of a player who is having difficulty disposing of a ball in a team
game.
In a team game, players are often rushed and under pressure to perform skills,
therefore if they can reduce the time taken to process information during the
Input stage by either improving signal detection or selective attention, they will
have more time to make a decision about what the best option would be and more
time to dispose of the ball.
Or
If players can improve their technique and gain an ability to automatically dispose
of the ball without concentrating on skill execution, they will be able to attend to
external cues such as position of opposition players and become more tactically
aware which will improve the Output phase of the Information Processing Model
and mistakes will become less common.
Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Learning Process in Acquiring Skill

Feedback
The final phase of the model is the FEEDBACK phase. This is when reflection on
the outcome of the performance of the skill is undertaken the how did it go
phase. More about feedback will be covered in the next Key Concept Specific
Factors Affecting Performance.
This phase is important because it assists in the modification or
reinforcement of SCHEMA selected as a response. What do you
understand by this statement?
In order to successfully develop a correctly sequenced sub-routine when
learning a new skill, rehearsal is important so that a skill can become
automatic. This refers to the schema theory where the brain recognises
being in a certain situation and knows instinctively how to react.
However, without feedback, beginners are prone to learn bad habits that
can surface as flaws in their technique which can impact on their skill
development.

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Key Concept 1: How Skill is

Acquired
Sub-Concept 4 Stages of Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Stages of Learning
In the area of skill acquisition and development there are 3 distinct learning or
developmental phases that all learners pass through when attempting to master a new skill.
Even elite athletes when mastering a new skill must pass through each phase, however the
time taken to move from cognitive to autonomous may be much faster.

The 3 Stages of Learning

Cognitive phase - Identification and development of the component parts of the skill involves formation of a mental picture of the skill and learning of individual components of
sub-routines.
Associative phase - Linking the individual skills into a smooth action of the sub-routines involves practicing the skill and using feedback to perfect the skill.
Autonomous phase - Developing the learned skill so that it becomes automatic - involves
little or no conscious thought or attention whilst performing the skill - not all performers
reach this stage.
stages

of
Learning

Cognitive
(Planning
)
Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

Associati
ve
(Practice)

Autonom
ous
(Automati
c)
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

No Clear Idea of an
Ideal performance

Stages of Learning

Believes all Cues to

be of equal
importance

C O G N IT IV E L E A R N E R
a w o rk in g m o d e l is
g e n e ra lly a c h ie v e d
q u i c k l y , m e a n i n g i t 's
o fte n a s h o rt s ta g e

a lth o u g h in f o
re q u ire d , le a
o n ly d e a l w
a m o u n ts a t

rm a t io n is
rn e rs c a n
it h s m a ll
o n e tim e

k n o w s th e y a re m a k in g
e rro rs , b u t n o t s u re
w h a t ty p e o r w h y

p ro n e to m a k in g m a n y
e rro rs

fe e d b a c k n e e d s to b e
s p e c i fi c r a t h e r t h a n
g e n e ra l

litt le id e a c o n c e rn in g
h o w th e s k ill s h o u ld
lo o k o r f e e l

Uncertainty

Unable to process
much information,
often rushed
Errors are Frequent
and Large

Motor Output not

Highly Programmed

The Cognitive Stage of Skill Acquisition

To

Generation of a clear mental picture must be provided through visual and verbal demonstrations as
beginners do not have any idea what a skill should look like.
Difficult skills can be broken down into smaller movements for practice and mastery.
The learner need to experience some success as well as receive positive encouragement.
Rates of progress through the cognitive stage vary from one individual to another, depending on the
difficulty of the skill.
Some difficult skills may never be mastered by some people.
Learning needs to be fun to maintain motivation and concentration

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

Text Page 18 - 19

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Stages of Learning

Practice Phase
Begin to
Eliminate
Mistakes

A S S O C IA T IV E L E A R N E R

e rro rs a re le s s f re q u e n t
a n d s m a lle r in n a tu re

b e g in to re c o g n is e
e rro rs in th e ir te c h n iq u e

b e g in to g e n e ra te a n
id e a o f w h a t th e s k ill
s h o u ld lo o k a n d f e e l
lik e

Errors occur less

frequently
Motor
Programmes
Developed

t h e w o rk in g m o d e l is
r e fi n e d

p o t e n tia lly a lo n g
p h a s e , p ra c tic e n e e d e d
to a d v a n c e to th e n e x t
s ta g e

Sub-Routines
become more
co-ordinated

Development of
Kinaesthesis

Associative Stage of Skill Acquisition

The learner, having acquired an idea of what the skill is, needs to repeat the movement to refine the
motor program
Feedback is still essential to improve the skill, it must be specific to avoid development of bad habits or
poor technique.
A sense of fluency or smoothness will develop as the learner's kinesthesis improves.
Perfect practice is necessary; a poorly practiced technique will become reinforced
Learners experience success more frequently with additional practice and feedback.
Learners can remain at this stage for a long period, even years, however, most will reach the level at
which the skill execution is reasonably automatic.

Key
Concept
1:toHow
Skillgame
is Acquired
Textpressure
Page 19
Players
begin
recognise
tactics and understanding of how to perform under
of - 20

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ACHPER (SA)
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Stages of Learning

Superior Anticipation
and Timing
Able to Attend to
Cues in Environment

AU TO N O M O U S LE AR N E R

e rro rs a re ra re

s e lf a p p ra is a l a n d
c o rre c tio n is p o s s ib le

ta c tic a l a w a re n e s s
in c re a s e s a s
m o v e m e n t p a tte rn s
b e c o m e a u to m a tic

d e a l w ith p re s s u re m o re
e ffi c i e n t l y n o w

w id e ra n g e o f
v a ria t io n s t o t h e b a s ic
m o v e m e n t p a tte rn a re
n o w p o s s ib le

Superior Signal
Detection and
Selective Attention
Superior Tactical
Awareness
Smooth and Efficient
Technique
Superior
Kinaesthesis

Autonomous Stage of Skill Acquisition

Execution of movement is correctly sequenced and performed instinctively. The performer has
consolidated the many discrete skills (commonly called sub-routines) that comprise the action.
Movement has a characteristic fluency as the sub-routines sequence and blend in aesthetically pleasing
motions. The movement looks good because it is efficient, only the necessary movements are performed.
Well developed ability to attend to other cues while giving little thought to how to perform the skill,
players can therefore read the cues from their environment without worrying about how to perform the
skills and more on tactics.
Practice is still important during the autonomous stage, but mostly involves simulating the competition
situation. Players are able to provide their own feedback as they know what the skill should look and feel
like.

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Stages of Learning
Refer to the following diagrams, which show performers at different
stages ofAlearning a skill: B
C

Identify the stage of learning shown in the pictures above by each

performer who has possession of the ball.
A: Cognitive Learner
B: Autonomous Learner
C: Associative Learner

Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Stages of Learning
Consider a sport that you have played or still play.
Isolate ONE characteristic of each stage of learning as it applies to the sport
you have chosen.
Sport: Soccer
Cognitive Stage of Learning
Beginner soccer players make frequent passing and trapping errors, as they
need to concentrate on the body movements required to perform the subroutines of the specific skills. Cognitive learners require a large amount of time
to pass off the ball when they have it in their possession as movements are still
being learnt which also contributes to errors in decision making and skill
execution.
Associative Stage of Learning
Soccer players in the associative stage of learning begin to develop a feel for
how skills should be executed therefore skill errors become less frequent. They
can pass the ball effectively at training and when they have time and space in a
game but find themselves often rushed in games and panic under pressure as
sub-routines still need to be attended to rather than the external environment,
understanding of game tactics is still developing.
Autonomous Stage of Learning
Soccer players can skilfully and effortlessly control and pass the ball under
pressure in a game situation as they have a highly developed sense of
kinesthesis which allows them to control the ball and execute skills without
Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired
Text Page 21
concentrating on skill execution. This provides more time to scan the external

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Stages of Learning
Elite performers in a sport often appear to have more time to
perform skills in a game situation. They do not look as rushed as
other good players in the same situation. Explain how the
following factors contribute to this:
SIGNAL DETECTION
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
ANTICIPATION
Signal Detection refers to an athletes ability to detect the presence of a cue
and elite performers can detect less obvious signals and generally detect the
presence of a cue earlier. This creates more time to make decisions and then
execute skills.
Selective Attention - refers to an athletes ability to focus on relevant cues and
ignore irrelevant cues during the Input phase, therefore time is not wasted
attending to information that is not required to perform a skill accurately and
efficiently.
Anticipation - refers to an athletes ability to predict the likely outcome of an
event based on only partial cues. If elite players can begin the commencement
of a movement early due to being able to accurately predict the outcome of
events they can initiate their response earlier and have more time to execute a
skill response.
In combination, these benefits mean that elite performers can initiate response
mechanisms earlier. Therefore they will be able to dedicate more of the
response time to manufacturing and adjusting their performance of a skill
Key
Conceptwhile
1: How
is Acquired
Text
Page
22
response
stillSkill
achieving
successful execution. Ultimately, they
will
look

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Stages of Learning
Refer to the diagrams below of 3 students performing a badminton overhead
clear test in a PE class.
Students were required to hit the shuttle, provided by the feeder, into the target
area set on the court.
Each student was given 10 shuttles to hit.

a) Identify the student who performed the best in these conditions:

Student 1 landed 9 out of 10 shuttles in the target area which indicates the highest
degree of accuracy.
Autonomous Stage of Learning
b) Identify the stage of skill learning this player demonstrates:
c) Identify
and Explain
2 characteristic
Smooth
and Efficient
Techniqueof this stage of learning that helped the
student to achieve this score:
Student 1 has a refined technique that is able to be reproduced
Characteristic:
consistently throughout the test.
Effectively Provides Internal Feedback
Explanation:
Student 1 has a superior feel for how the service action should be performed
Characteristic:
and can correct their own errors by adjusting their technique after each serve.
Explanation:
Key Concept 1: How Skill is Acquired

(d)

Text Page 22 - 23

Identify the cognitive learner in the test: Student 3; scored 2 out of 10.