RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CONTENTS

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH & SCENTIFIC METHOD
AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
PURPOSE OF ORAL HEALTH RESEARCH
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

 QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH

TYPES OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH PROTOCOL
RESEARCH DESIGN
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHER IN INDIA
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

No people other than scientists have made the world a better

place to live
Integral to countries efforts to improve Health of populations &
effectiveness of health systems, particularly during times of
dramatic epidemiological, demographic, & economic changes
that profoundly affect health systems

What is research????.....

The word research derives from the French

recherche: to search closely where "chercher"
means "search"
Its literal meaning is 'to investigate
thoroughly'

Research:
A quest for knowledge through diligent
search or investigation or experimentation aimed
at

the

discovery

&

interpretation

of

knowledge.
- WHO 2001

new

Whats the Difference Between Method

and Methodology?
Method
Instrument used by the researcher in selecting and
constructing research technique during the course
of the study.
3 groups
Collection of data
Statistical techniques
Evaluate the accuracy of results obtained

Methodology
Science of studying how research is done
scientifically.
Considers logic behind the method.
Methodology is a theory and analysis of how
research is done or should proceed.

AIMS OF RESEARCH:
To find the hidden truth .
Discover answers to questions through
application of Scientific procedures

Objectives of Research
1.To gain familiarity with a phenomenon
2.To describe accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group
3.To determine the frequency with which something
occur or with which it is associated with something
else
4.Test hypothesis of causal relationship between
variables
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Purpose of oral health

research
To promote the oral health of public by
improving education , service ,practice and
delivery.
To contribute new knowledge or reevaluate
current knowledge to improve all phases of
oral health care.
To improve the techniques and practices of
identifying , preventing and treating oral
diseases in individuals and groups .
To develop and test theories to oral health care
and oral disease processes.
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To identify and solve problems to advancement

Criteria of good research:

Purpose to be clearly defined
Research process to be detailed
Research design thoroughly
High ethical standard applied
Limitations frankly revealed
Adequate analysis for decision
markers need
Conclusions justified
Researchers experience reflected
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Types of Research:

APPLIED
APPLIED RESEARCH
RESEARCH
BASIC
BASIC RESEARCH
RESEARCH
CORRELATIONAL
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
RESEARCH
DESCRIPTIVE
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
RESEARCH
ETHNOGRAPHIC
ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
RESEARCH
EXPLORATORY
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH.
RESEARCH.
GROUNDED
GROUNDED THEORY
THEORY RESEARCH.
RESEARCH.
HISTORICAL
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
RESEARCH
PHENOMENOLOGICAL
PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH
RESEARCH
QUALITATIVE
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
RESEARCH

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QUANTITATIVE
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
RESEARCH

BASIC RESEARCH

Basic research is driven by a scientist'scuriosityor interest in a

scientific question. The main motivation is toexpand man's
knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious
commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic
research.
For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to
questions such as:
How did the universe begin?
What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimental research is an objective, systematic,

controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting
and
controlling
phenomena
and
examining
probability and causality among selected variables.
The simplest experimental design includes two variables and two
groups of participants.
The two variables(Independent versus Dependent variables).
The IV is the predictor variable whereas the DV is the outcome
variable.
Researchers manipulate and control the IV to study it's effect on the
DV.
The two groups of participants (Control versus Experimental
group).
Before beginning the experiment, the researcher (randomly) assigns
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his/her sample to two different groups: the control group and the

RESEARCH APPROACHES
There are two basic types of approaches;
a) Quantitative approach
b) Qualitative approach

Quantitative approach

Involes the generation of data in quantitative

form which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid
fashion.
This approach can be further sub classified
into:
Inferential , experimental and simulation
approaches to research.

Qualitative Research
is collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by
observing what people do and say.
refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions,
characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions
of things.
is subjective and uses very different methods of
collecting information, including individual, in-depth
interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type
of research is exploratory and open-ended

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
steps:

It refers to a series of standardized procedures used in research to

increase the likelihood that information gathered will be relevant
,reliable and unbiased
1.Problem formulation: identification and statement of a problem in need
of a solution
2. Hypothesis formulation: formulation to a solution or answer to a the
question that is observable ,measurable and consistent with what is
already known in the field
3.Data collection: collection of facts that can be used to solve the problem
4.Analysis and interpretation: meaning of the data collected
5. Writing a report: final step ,purpose is to communicate the findings of
the research
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HYPOTHESIS:

Hypothesis are carefully constructed statements

about a phenomenon in the population.
May be generated either by deductive or inductive
reasoning
Testing of hypothesis most likely cause of the
disease or condition

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 Hypothesis tentative prediction or

explanation of the relationship between two or
more variables
-WHO,2001
Thus, it translates the problem into a prediction.
Therefore, in the process of formulating
hypothesis all variables should be studied

21

 In health research hypotheses are often

constructed & tested to identify causes of
disease & to explain the distribution of
disease in population
Hypothesis constructed should have at least
one independent variable and one dependent
variable

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 Directional hypothesis: is the one that specifies not only the

existence but the expected direction of relationship between the
variables.
Ex: as the marginal integrity decreases microleakage in the
restoration increases.

Non directional hypothesis: does not stipulate the direction of

relationship of the variables.
Ex: the study of relationship between the marginal integrity and
microleakage in restoration.

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RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS:
These are the statements of actual expected relationships
between the variables.
Ex: higher the intake of sugar higher is the caries experience.
NULL HYPOTHESIS
( STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS)
It states that there is no relationship between the independent
and the dependent variable.

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Protocol:
A protocol is a document that explicitly states the reasoning behind
and structure of a research project.
All protocols are divided into two main sections:
investigation
to evaluate the effect of fluoride
- TheAn
problem
to be investigated
varnishes
Project
title , duraphat and fluorprotector on the occurrence
of new carious lesions . A randomized controlled trial
The research problem
Background
The
A aims
randomized controlled trial of duraphat and
The
hypothesisvarnishes
fluorprotector

Method of investigation
Plan of investigation
Project milestones
Dissemination of the results
Resources required
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Research protocol
Defining research problems
Review of literature
Review of concepts and
theories

Review of previous
research findings

Formulating hypothesis
Design of research
(Sample design)
Collection of data
(Execution of data)
Analysis of data
(Hypothesis testing)
Interpretation and Writing
reports

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Defining the research problem:

The statement of the problem should be written in a
precise and concise form, including the essential points.
When the problem statement is written ,the words must
show an understanding of the research phenomena and
should explicitly reveal the purpose
In this study --whether the use of a Duraphat varnish
will result in greater caries protection than fluorprotector
varnish. If we can show that this occurs this will be an
important finding for preventive care
This will be an investigation to evaluate the effect of
fluoride varnish upon dental caries incidence
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BACKGROUND:
Important feature of background to the project is that it should
be brief and to the point:

no longer than two pages

Literature that is relevant to the problem that is to be solved

should be concisely reviewed.
Attention should be drawn to the good points and the
deficiencies of the studies quoted.
In terms of writing style it is good practice to make the writing
flow ,avoid the tendency to introduce concepts and previous
studies by simply going through a shopping list of papers
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The aims:
Aim is an overall statement of the reason for undertaking the study
eg: to determine the dental health of 12year old state school children
within a,b,c districts.
The objectives:
They must be
- Measurable
- Achievable
- Statements to achieve aim
- Appropriate to the group under study
- Eg:
Select a representative sample of the study population ,i.e. 12year
old state school children
Conduct a cross sectional survey of the above to describe dental
caries and oral cleanliness
estimate professionally judged treatment need
To describe the variation in dental caries ,treatment need and oral
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cleanliness between districts

Method of investigation:
This is description of tactics of research and is probably the easiest
part of a research protocol to prepare
If the method has to be made easy to read ,it is better to use the
active voice , instead of the passive , for example:
we will randomly allocate the subjects to the Duraphat and the
Fluorprotector group ,stratifying by age and sex
This is easier to read than : the subjects will be randomly allocated
to the duraphat and the fluorprotector group, stratifying by the age
and sex.

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 In a study protocol ,the method should be stated in the future

tense.
The method should be structured using the following
subheadings:
- subjects
- design
- procedure
- materials ,measurements and apparatus used
- sample size calculation
- statistical methods

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The subjects:

The population the subjects will be drawn from

Total number & the number in any subgroups within the

investigation

All aspects of subject selection that will provide information on

the removal or minimization of bias

The inclusion and exclusion criteria for the subjects

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The design:
-

Selection of a research strategy is the core of research design

Choice whether descriptive ,analytical ,experimental or
combination of these depends on -----

1. Descriptive strategies
2. Observational analytical strategies
3. Experimental strategies
At this stage of the protocol the exclusion and inclusion criteria can
also be determined

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Sample size calculation:

Sampling is the process or technique of selecting a sample of
appropriate and manageable size for the study.
- If the sample size is too small --- risk that study may not be
sufficiently powerful to detect a difference between the groups
The procedure:
-

Describes exactly what is going to be done with the subjects

How data will be collected
Who will be collecting data
Duration of the study
Examiner training and calibration
Systemic procedure of examination
Details of consent
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Materials, measurement and apparatus:

-

Describe the materials and the instruments

Instruments are the tools by which data are collected
they include---- 1. questionnaire & interview schedules
2.medical examination
3.laboratory test
4.screening procedures

Statistical methods:
-outlined in detail
-rationale for the choice of test should be described

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Resources required:
-

List of all resources

Cost must be noted

The result should be short document that clearly outlines the

research project
If the protocol is poorly prepared ,it is unlikely that the project will
yield information that is hoped for.

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Writing report:
After analysis and interpretation final report is written

Basic purpose --

communicate research process & observed

findings to the professional community & colleagues findings

may be evaluated and perhaps implemented for the benefit of a
larger population

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General information:
Pages are numbered
The space given for margins
- left margin : 1
- right margin : 1
- top margin : 1
- bottom margin: 1
All pages are single sided
Text is double spaced, except for long quotations and
bibliography
One blank line between a section heading and the text that
follows it
Any Easily readable font is acceptable
Same font should be used throughout the manuscript

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Contents of the report:

1.Title page
All text on the title is centered vertically and horizontally
No page number
Not counted in any page numbering
2. Table of contents:
I . Introduction :
few short introductory paragraphs
general statements about the need for study
Dramatic illustrations or quotes to set the tone
II. Statement of the problem:
Focal point of research
One sentence ,accompanied by several paragraphs that
elaborate on the problem
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III. Purpose:
Single statement or paragraph that explains the aim or what the
study intends to accomplish
IV. Significance of the study:
Point outs how the study relates to the larger issues
Uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for the study
Significance of the study answers the questions :
-

Why is the study important?

To whom is it important?
What benefit will occur if the study is done?

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V. Methodology :

Describes basic research plan

Defining the population
Drawing a representative sample from the population
Doing the research on the sample
Inferring the results from the sample back to the population

One sentence is necessary to define the problem

Sampling procedure should be described in detail
Using a survey that was designed by someone else ,the source
must be stated
Describe the theoretical constructs that survey is attempting to
measure
Include a copy of actual survey in the appendix

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 State exactly when research began and completed

Special procedures that were followed
Analysis of the plan in detail
VI. Results:
Various demographic information collected is reported in a
simple way
Restate the research question using exact wording
If the research question is testable state the null hypothesis
Type of statistical test performed
Report the statistics and conclusions followed by any
appropriate table

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VII. Conclusions and recommendations:

Begin with a few paragraphs summarizing what was done and
found
Explain the reasons for the findings and present plausible
reasons why it might have turned out the way they did
Present recommendations based on the findings
VIII. Citing references:
Appears at the end
Describes an item usually published ( abook ,report or thesis)
Part of an item (a book chapter ,journal article or electronic
document)
Provides essential details which enable reader to locate cited
publications
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HARVARD (AUTHOR DATE )STYLE: Parenthetical system

Citations within the text are given using the authors name and
the date in brackets
Names and dates are enclosed in parenthesis unless authors
name is part of the sentence
If two papers are cited by the same author and both are
published in the same year ,the first should be referenced as
(Loft 1997 a), then( Loft 1997 b)
Example:
Journal article: Rao A ,Kamath A, Sequeira PS ,Peter S.(2003)
influence of parental beliefs on the caries experience of their
children .Int Dent J,240:5-12.

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VANCOUVER (AUTHOR NUMBER ) STYLE:

Citation sequence approach

Using a number series to indicate references & the reference list
at the end is ordered numerically as they appear in the text
Brackets or superscription
Details are given either at the bottom of each page or in a
reference list at the end of the paper
Example:
Journal article: Rao A ,Kamath A, Sequeira PS ,Peter S. influence
of parental beliefs on the caries experience of their children .Int
Dent J,2003 ;240:5-12.
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Research design

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Divisions of Epidemiological studies

I)

Observational
studies
a) Descriptive studies
b) Analytic studies
) Cross-sectional
studies
) Case-control studies
) Cohort studies
) Ecological studies

II. Experimental
studies
) Randomized
controlled trial
) Field trial
) Community trials

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Descriptive epidemiology
First phase of epidemiological investigation
The various procedures involved.

1. Defining the population to be studied

2. Defining the disease under study
3. Describing the disease by
Time
Place
Person
4. Measurement of disease
5. Comparing with known indices
6. Formulation of an etiological hypothesis
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Analytical epidemiology
Second major type of epidemiological studies
Subject of interest is individual
The object is not to formulate, but to test the
hypothesis.
Analytical studies comprise of
Case control study
Cohort study
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Experimental epidemiology.
This involves some action, intervention,
or manipulation such as deliberate
application or withdrawal of the
suspected cause.

Study is carried out under the direct

control of the investigator.

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Experimental
studies
Randomized
controlled
trials

Non
randomized
trials
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Sampling Design
A sample is a selected subset of population.
Types of sampling:
Probability sampling:

chance that an element

is selected in a target
population is known

Non probability: chance

that an element is selected

in a target population is
unknown

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PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY
RESEARCHERS IN INDIA:

Lack of scientific training

Insufficient interaction

there is need for generating the confidence that

the information/data obtained from a business
unit will not be misused.

Research studies overlapping one another are

often undertaken for want of adequate

information.
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There does not exist a code of conduct for

researchers and inter- university and interdepartmental rivalries are quiet common.

many researchers face the difficulty of adequate and

timely secretarial assistance, including computer
assistance.

Library management and functioning is not

satisfactory at many places.
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 Difficulty of timely availability of published

data.
Problems with conceptualization.

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CONCLUSION:
Scientific inquiry is one of the most challenging
enterprises of mankind, and the support that receives is
a measure of the strength, vitality and vision of society.
The success of research is bound by collective talents of
researcher, order, inference and chance, as accounted
for and encompassed by solid research design and
methodology.

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REFERENCES:
1. Soben peter textbook of preventive and community
dentistry
2. C.R.Kothari, Research methodology methods and
techniques, 2nd ed. 2009.
3.Orientation to evidenced based medicine- research
methodology.
4. David. L. Katz, Epidemiology, Biostatistics and
Preventive medicine, 3rd ed.2001.

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THANK YOU

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