LEAN

SIX SIGMA

L S S

An Introduction to Graphing Project

Charter and CTQ
Courtesy By: HakeemUrRehman

MS-TQM, M.I.O.M(Operations Research)

Certified Six Sigma Black Belt (Singapore)
Lead Auditor ISO 9001 (UK)

IQTMPU

MINITAB: AN
INTRODUCTION

BEGINNING AND ENDING A MINITAB SESSION:

To start a Minitab session from the menu, select
Start All Programs MINITAB 15 English MINITAB
15 English
SESSION
To exit Minitab, select
WINDOW
File Exit
When you first enter
Minitab, the screen will
appear as in the figure:
The
session
window
contains comments, tables,
descriptive summaries, and
inferential statistics.
The data window consists
of all the data and variable
names.
Graph windows contain
high resolution graphs.

DATA
WINDOW

DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
USING MINITAB
In the Minitab Data
folder,

open

the

worksheet Pulse.mtw
Conduct
Analysis

Descriptive
on

pulse1 data.

the

MEASURES OF
LOCATION
SAMPLE

Mean is:
Mean is the average of a group of numbers
:
Applicable for interval and ratio data
POPULATION
Not applicable for nominal or ordinal data
:
Affected by each value in the data set, including extreme values
Computed by summing all values in the data set and dividing the sum
by the number of values in the data set
Stat Basic Statistics Display Descriptive Statistics:::
Select; Statistics (and choose appropriate measures)
Select; Graphs Histogram of data, with normal curve
Descriptive
Pulse1

Statistics:

MEASURES OF
LOCATION

Median is:
Median - middle value in an ordered array of numbers.
For an array with an odd number of terms, the median is the
middle number
For an array with an even number of terms the median is the
average of the middle two numbers
Trimmed Mean is a:
Compromise between the MEAN and MEDIAN
1. The Trimmed Mean is calculated by eliminating a specified
percentage of the smallest and largest observations from the data
set and then calculating the average of the remaining observations.
2. Useful for data with potential extreme values.
MODE:
Mode - the most frequently occurring value in a data set
Applicable to all levels of data measurement (nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio)
Can be used to determine what categories occur most frequently
Bimodal In a tie for the most frequently occurring value, two modes
are listed

MEASURES OF
VARIATION

RANGE:
The difference between the largest and the smallest
values in a set of data
Advantage easy to compute
Disadvantage is affected by extreme values
INTERQUARTILE RANGE:
Inter-quartile Range - range of values between the
first and third quartile
Range of the middle half; middle 50%
Inter-quartile Range used in the construction of box
and whisker plots
STANDARD DEVIATION:
S
=

VARIANCE:
S2 = Square of S

SHAPE OF THE
DISTRIBUTION

Skewness: indicator used in distribution analysis as a sign of asymmetry

and deviation from a normal distribution.

Skewness > 0 - Right skewed distribution - most values are

concentrated on left of the mean, with extreme values to the right.
Skewness < 0 - Left skewed distribution - most values are
concentrated on the right of the mean, with extreme values to the left.
Skewness = 0 - mean = median, the distribution is symmetrical
around the mean.
Kurtosis - indicator used in distribution analysis as a sign of flattening or
"peakedness" of a distribution.
Kurtosis > 3 - Leptokurtic distribution, sharper than a normal
distribution, with values concentrated around the mean and thicker
tails. This means high probability for extreme values.
Kurtosis < 3 - Platykurtic distribution, flatter than a normal
distribution with a wider peak. The probability for extreme values is less
than for a normal distribution, and the values are wider spread around
the mean.
Kurtosis = 3 - Mesokurtic distribution - normal distribution for

INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHING
(Cont)

When you start Minitab15, if your tool bars do not look like the
figure below,

Do the following to get the tools where you need them. Click on Tools
Customize Toolbars tab.
In the dialog box that opens, check and uncheck as needed so that it
matches the figure to the below.

PIE CHART
The Pie Chart is a way of Pictorially representing Data; Pie Charts
are an Effective means of showing the Relative Size of the
Individual Parts to the Total. It is also known as Sector Diagram,
consisting of a Circle divided into Sectors whose Areas are
Proportional to the various Parts in to which the Whole Quantity is
Divided.
HOW TO MAKE A PIE CHART?

There are four simple steps in making a Pie Chart.

1. Collect the Data and present it in Tabular Form
2. Total the Data items and calculate the Percentage
of each Item to the Whole (the percentage when
added up must equal 100 %)
3. Convert each Percentage Total into the relevant
portion of the Circle. Since a Circle represents 360
degrees, each portion of Data will occupy a Slice
of the Whole. Following Formula may also be used
to calculate the Angle of Pie Chart Sector:

PIE CHART (Cont)

SECOND
QUARTER
PRODUCTION

Second Quarter
Truck Production in
the U.S.
(Hypothetical
values)

U.S.

TRUCK

Company

2d Quarter
Truck
Production

357,411

354,936

160,997

34,099

E
Totals

12,747
920,190

PIE CHART (Cont)

Pie Chart Calculations for Company A

Company
A
B
C

357, 411
=
920,190

D
E
Totals

2d Quarter
Truck
Production

.388 360 =
Proportion

Degrees

357,411

.388

140

354,936

.386

139

160,997

.175

63

34,099

.037

13

12,747
920,190

.014
1.000

5
360

PIE CHART (Cont)

Second Quarter U.S. Truck Production

PIE CHART: Using

Minitab
Expenditure Profile of a Health
Authority is

The following
represented as a Pie Chart in the figure enclosed.
SERVICES

AMOUNT

PERCENTA
GE

SECTOR
DEGREE

Acute Services

Rs. 38.2 M

55.4%

199

Mental Health
Services

Rs. 11. 9
M

17.2 %

62

Services for the

Elderly

Rs. 11. 9
M

17.2%

62

Community Services

Rs 7.0M

10.2%

37

Rs. 69.0 M

100%

360

Total

13

PIE CHART: Using

Minitab

14

PIE CHART:
Exercise
As an engineer at a tire company, you want to identify
the most common causes of air loss in tires. You collect
field data from a select group of service stations over a
three-month period. Using your summarized data,
create a pie chart of the causes of air loss.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Open the worksheet TIRES.MTW.

Choose Graph > Pie Chart.
Choose Chart values from a table.
In Categorical variable, enter CausesA. In Summary
variables, enter Counts.
Click Pie Chart Options. Under Order slices by, choose
Decreasing volume. Click OK.
Click Labels. Click the Slice Labels tab.
Under Label pie slices with, check Percent.
Click OK in each dialog box.

CONSTRUCTION OF STEM
& LEAF PLOT
Raw Data

Stem

Leaf

86

77

91

60

55

76

92

47

88

67

23

59

72

75

83

79

569

77

68

82

97

89

07788

81

75

74

39

67

79

83

70

02455677
89

11233689

68

49

56

Stem

Leaf

Stem
78
94
Leaf

91
81

11247

CTQ
CTQ is a term widely used within the
field of Six Sigma activities to describe the
key output characteristics of a process.
An example may be an element of a
design or an attribute of a service that is
critical in the eyes of the customer.
A CTQ tree helps the team to derive the
more specific behavioral requirements of
the customer from his general needs.

Application
A CTQ tree is a useful tool during the data
collection stage (Define) of an improvement
project.
Once the project team has established who
their customers are, the team should then
move towards determining the customer needs
and requirements. The need of a customer is the
output of a process.
Requirements are the characteristics to
determine whether the customer is happy with
the output delivered. These constitute what is
CTQ and a CTQ tree helps to identify these
CTQs in a systematic way.

Basic steps

1. Identify the customer.

2. Identify customers general needs in
Level 1.
3. Identify the first set of requirements for
that need in Level
4. Drill down to Level 3 if necessary to
identify the specific behavioral
requirements of the customer.
5. Validate the requirements with the
customer. The process of validation could be
one-to-one interviews, surveys or focus

Example

PROJECT
CHARTER

Project Title

Project Title

Business Case

Why should you do this project?

What are the benefits of doing this project?

Problem
Statement

What is the problem, issue and/or concern?

Goal

What are your improvement objectives and targets?

Metrics (CTQs)

PRIMARY Metric(s): Key measures to be used for the

objectives
SECONDARY Metric(s): Those measures which
indicates impacts on secondary concerns and which
indicates that problem is not shifted to other key areas.

Project Scope

What authority do you have?

Which processes/products you are addressing?
What is not within this project?

Project Team

Who are the team leader, sponsor, and members?

What are their roles and responsibilities in this project?

Project Plan

How and when are you going to get this project done
(DMAIC stages)

Communication
Plan

What are your interfaces with each other?

What are your meeting & reporting times?

22

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
STEPS IN FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:
Step 1 - Determine range of frequency distribution
Range is the difference between the high and the lowest
numbers
Step 2 determine the number of classes
Dont use too many, or two few classes
Step 3 Determine the width of the class interval
Approx class width can be calculated by dividing the range
by the number of classes
Values fit into only one class
The number of classes should be between 5 and 15.
Fewer than 5 classes cause excessive summarization.
More than 15 classes leave too much detail.
Class Width
Divide the range by the number of classes for an
approximate class width
Round up to a convenient number

COMMON STATISTICAL
GRAPHS

Histogram -- vertical bar chart of frequencies

Frequency Polygon -- line graph of frequencies
Pie Chart -- proportional representation for categories of a
whole
Stem and Leaf Plot -- display is a graphical method
of displaying data. It is particularly useful when your data are
not too numerous.
Pareto Chart -- type of chart which contains both bars and a
line graph.
The bars display the values in descending order, and the
line graph shows the cumulative totals of each category,
left to right.
The purpose is to highlight the most important among a
(typically large) set of factors.
Scatter Plot -- type of display using Cartesian coordinates to
display values for two variables for a set of data.
The data is displayed as a collection of points, each having
the value of one variable determining the position on the
horizontal axis and the value of the other variable

WHAT IS A
HISTOGRAM?

A histogram
is a summary graph showing
distribution of data points measured that falls
within various class-intervals.
WHAT QUESTIONS THE HISTOGRAM ANSWERS?
What distribution (center, variation and shape) does the
data have?
Does the data look symmetric or is it skewed to the left or
right?
Does the data contain outliers?
25
Is Process within Specification Limits?

GUIDELINES FOR
CONSTRUCTING A
of data points HISTOGRAM
in the data set. Call this

1.

Determine the number

number n.
2. Determine the range, R, of the values in the data set.
3. Determine the number of classes; there are no set rules; however,
there are some rules of thumb that can be used.
a) # if Classes = 1 + 3.3 log(n)
b) The logarithm (base 2) rule.

# of Classes = K = [log2n] + 1 = [(log n) / (log 2)] + 1

c)

Following table [Goal 88] gives a range of classes.

# of Classes = K =

26

THE HISTOGRAM

Open Bears.MTW
You will create a frequency histogram of the
variable Age.

THE HISTOGRAM
(Cont)

CONTROLLING HISTOGRAMS:
What you get in this case is a histogram with 10 classes.
To get the right number of classes, get into the "X Scale" editing dialog box
and click on the "Binning" tab.
For "Interval Type" click on "Cut point" and for "Interval Definition" click on
"Number of intervals:" and change it to 6; Now click "OK
This graph still does not conform to standards because the class width and
class boundaries were not calculated according to rules. To get what we
want, we must define the class boundaries (what Minitab calls "cut points")
ourselves.
The minimum value of the data is 8 and the maximum is 177. Our formula
for the class width with 6 classes is (1778)/6 = 28.5..., which rounds up to
29. (Remember; always round up unless the fraction yields an integer.) If we
choose 8 as the lowest class limit, then the lowest class boundary will be 7.5,
and the rest will be 36.5, 65.5, 94.5, 123.5, 152.5 and 181.5.
Now get back into the "Binning" dialog box, click on "Midpoint/Cutpoint
positions:", delete the existing cutpoints then enter the first 2 class
boundaries listed above into the box (separate with spaces, not commas)
and click "OK".

FREQUENCY POLYGON
line
graph
frequencies

of

THE HISTOGRAM &

FREQUENCY POLYGON
(Cont)
EXERCISE:
The
data
in
C:\Program
Files\Minitab
15\English\Sample Data \Grades.MTW consists
of verbal and math SAT scores and
corresponding GPA's.
i. Create a frequency histogram with 7
classes of the verbal SAT scores.
ii. Create a relative frequency histogram with
7 classes of the verbal SAT scores.
iii. Create a frequency polygon with 7 classes
of the verbal SAT scores.

PARETO
ANALYSIS
A bar graph used to arrange information in such a way that
priorities for process improvement can be established.
Pareto Chart of Fault Desc.
2500

Count

80

1500

60

1000

40

500
Fault Desc.

20

Count
Percent
Cum %

Percent

100

2000

707 674 205 164

97
96
78
45
43 107
31.9 30.4 9.3 7.4 4.4 4.3 3.5 2.0 1.9
4.8
31.9 62.3 71.6 79.0 83.3 87.7 91.2 93.2 95.2 100.0

The 8020 theory was first developed in 1906, by Italian

economist, Vilferdo Pareto, who observed an unequal distribution
of wealth and power in a relatively small proportion of the total
population.
Joseph M. Juran is credited with adapting Paretos economic
observations to business applications.

PARETO ANALYSIS
(Cont)
The 80:20 Rule Examples:
80% of your phone calls go to 20% of the
names of your list
20% of the roads handle 80% of the traffic
80% of the meals in a restaurant come from
20% of the menu
20% of the people causes 80% of the
problems

PARETO ANALYSIS
(Cont)

Pareto Chart Using Minitab EXAMPLE:

Suppose you work for a company that
manufactures motorcycles. You hope
to reduce quality costs arising from
defective
speedometers.
During
inspection, a certain number of
speedometers are rejected, and the
types of defects recorded.
You enter the name of the defect into a
worksheet column called Defects, and
the corresponding counts into a
column called Counts.
You know that you can save the most
money by focusing on the defects
responsible for most of the rejections.
A Pareto chart will help you identify
which defects are causing most of your
problems.

PARETO ANALYSIS
(Cont)
Pareto Chart Using Minitab EXAMPLE:
EXH_QC.MTW (Cont)

Step 1:
Choose Stat Quality Tools
Pareto Chart

Step 2:
Choose Chart defects table.
In Labels in, enter a column
of Defects.
In Frequencies in, enter a
column of Counts

PARETO ANALYSIS
(Cont)

Pareto Chart Using Minitab EXAMPLE:

EXH_QC.MTW (Cont)

PARETO ANALYSIS
(Cont)

Pareto Chart Using Minitab EXAMPLE:

EXH_QC.MTW (Cont)
Analyze
Chart:

the

Focus on improving
the number of missing
screws because over
half
of
your
speedometers
are
rejected due to this
defect.

PARETO ANALYSIS
(Cont)
TYPES OF PARETO CHART USING MINITAB

1. Pareto Chart with Raw data

2. Pareto Chart with Count data
(as we did in the above
example)
3. Pareto Chart with a by Variable

PARETO ANALYSIS
(Cont)

Pareto Chart with Raw data:

The company you work for

manufactures metal bookcases.
During final inspection, a certain
number of bookcases are rejected
due to scratches, chips, bends, or
dents.
You want to make a Pareto chart to
see which defect is causing most
of your problems.
First you count the number of
times each defect occurred,
then you enter the name of the
defect each time it occurs into a
worksheet
column
called
Damage.
1.
2.

Open
the
worksheet
EXH_QC.MTW
Choose Stat Quality Tools
Pareto Chart.

Interpreting the results:

Focus on improvements to scratches
and chips because 75% of the damage
is due to these defects.

PARETO ANALYSIS
(Cont)

Pareto Chart with a by Variable:

Imagine you work for a company

that manufactures dolls. Lately,
you
have
noticed
that
an
increasing number of dolls are
being rejected at final inspection
due to scratches, peels, and
smudges in their paint.
You want to see if a relationship
exists between the type and
number of flaws, and the work
shift producing the dolls.
1.
2.
3.

Open
the
worksheet Interpreting the results:
The night shift is producing more
EXH_QC.MTW
flaws overall.
Choose Stat Quality Tools
Most of the problems are due to
Pareto Chart.
scratches and peels. You may learn a
Choose Chart defects data
lot about the problem if you examine
in and enter Flaws in the text
that part of the process during the
box. In BY variable in, enter
night shift.

SCATTER PLOT
WHAT IS A SCATTER PLOT?
Is a graphical presentation of any possible
relationship between two sets of variables by a
simple X-Y plot, which may or may not be
dependent.

40

SCATTER PLOT
What is the relationship between the X and Y
Plot?

41

SCATTER PLOT
EXAMPLE: You are interested in how well your
company's camera batteries are meeting
customers' needs. Market research shows that
customers become annoyed if they have to wait
longer than 5.25 seconds between flashes.
You collect a sample of batteries that have been
in use for varying amounts of time and measure
the
voltage
remaining
in
each
battery
immediately after a flash (VoltsAfter), as well as
the length of time required for the battery to be
able to flash again (flash recovery time,
FlashRecov). Create a scatter plot to examine the
results. Include a reference line at the critical
flash recovery
time of 5.25
seconds. 42
Open
the worksheet
BATTERIES.MTW

EXAMPLE
(Cont):

SCATTER PLOT

43

SCATTER PLOT

INTERPRETING THE RESULTS:

As expected, the lower the voltage in a battery after a
flash, the longer the flash recovery time tends to be.
The reference line helps to illustrate that there were
many flash recovery times greater than 5.25
seconds.
44

QUESTIONS

45