Blok Metodologi Penelitian

PN-1: Konsep umum

penelitian
Dr. Jos L. Navarro
Medical Doctor
Specialist in Medical Microbiology and Family Medicine
Madrid (Spain)

Malang, Indonesia

http://www.4shared.com/folder/IOWDwlmU/METPEN_SEMESTER1.html

The scientist who does not know

what he is looking for
will not understand what he finds
Claude Bernard
(1813 1878)
was a French physiologist.

Kill as few patients

as possible,
please

About research

Research could be simply defined as:

The

way...
The process...
...to answer a question

So, every research begins with a QUESTION

And the ANSWER is for
...increasing

our knowledge about a concrete

scientific issue
...decreasing uncertainty

Why do research?
The aim of medical research is to
contribute to medical knowledge.
Research can change current practice and
improve health care.
Improvements: Reduction in

death

rate,

pain,
hospital

stay,
long term morbidity,
hospital costs

Why do research?

Can a single research project change the world?

Probably not.
But a well designed project may

add signicantly to current knowledge and

help to place another piece of a larger puzzle.

The individual researcher can benet by improving their

knowledge of a subject and allowing that knowledge to improve
patient care locally.

However, good research is not easy and it will be difcult

to take the project to a satisfactory conclusion.
Badly done research wastes resources, and money and
generates confusion.

About research

Mistakes:
Research

is NOT collecting and storing data

somewhere to see later if they are useful.
Research is NOT making a database with hundreds
of variables and see what happen to then if we cross
one to each other.
Association does NOT imply causality!

The Question must be thought always before

data collection.
Mostly of published scientific papers are
completely useless

About research

How is this process?

Sistematic
Organized
Oriented

to answer a question

About research
The key of good research is to begin with
a good question of research
A good question leads to a good research

About methodology
Observation

Question

Hypothesis

FINER,
Background and
significance

Plan & Study,

Design, Subjects,
Variables, Statistics

Results

Publication

Conclusions
(related to
hypothesis)

Example

Observation:

Indonesian diet looks different to

western diet
and heart health problems are lower
in Indonesia

Example

Question:

Is Indonesian diet healthier than

western diet?

Example

Is the question Feasible?

Is it Interesting?

Is it Novel?

Is it Ethical?

Is it Relevant?

Question

Is it focused?

Does Nasi Goreng intake cause

a low rate of heart attack in
Indonesian population?

Hypothesis
Daily

nasi goreng intake causes a

low rate of heart attacks in adult
Indonesian population

Outline of the Study Protocol

Element

Purpose

Design

How is the study structured?

Subjects

Who are the subjects and how will they be selected?

Variables

What measurements will be made?

Statistical issues

How large is the study and how will it be analyzed?

Hypotheses
Sample size
Analytic approach

About the STUDY DESIGN

Several types
Experimental
Non-experimental

No one approach is always better than the

others
Each research question requires one type
of design.

About STUDY DESIGN

An Experimental study is the best design to

establish causality (*)
but

it is the most difficult to carry out

It requires more resources

More workers
More $$$

So a good approach to begin a research is

Beginning

study and

with an observational (non-experimental)

if the results are good (and we have enough money)

then we can carry out an experimental study
(*) Causality: hubungan sebab dan akibat

Subjects

Two major decisions to choose the study

subjects
1.

Specify inclusion and exclusion criteria that

define the target population

2.

the kinds of patients best suited

How to recruit enough people

Subjects
Remember our hypothesis: Daily nasi
goreng intake causes a low rate of heart
attacks in adult Indonesian population
Subjects: adult Indonesian population

Inclusion

criteria: ?
Exclusion criteria: ?

Variables

Variables = Data. Each of the items we are going to

measure, collect and store
They can be classified according to

Type of data
A possible association

Types

1. Predictor variables

2. Outcome variables (hasil)

the one that occurs first or is more likely to be causal

in observational studies we can have many (gender, age,
education...)
occurs later, consequence

[3. Confounding variables]

other variables that have been previously related with the outcome

Smoking
...

Variables

According to a possible association

1.

2.

[3.

Predictor variables
the one that occurs first or is more likely to be causal
in observational studies we can have many (gender, age,
education...)

Outcome variables (hasil)

occurs later, consequence

Confounding variables]
other variables that have been previously related with the
outcome

Smoking
...

Example: Smoking, drinking and lung cancer

Variables

According to the type of data:

Qualitative
What type?, Which is?, What is?
typically non-numerical, (but they can be numerical)
types:

Nominal: no order
Ordinal: order, but intervals are non-equal, or undefined

Quantitative
How much? or How many?

Discrete: A countable or limited number of possible numeric

values.
Continuous: An infinite number of possible numeric values.

Variables
Examples of types of data
Quantitative
Continuous

Discrete

Blood pressure, height, weight,

age

Number of children
Number of attacks of asthma
per week

Qualitative
Ordinal (Ordered categories)

Nominal (Unordered
categories)

Grade of breast cancer

Better, same, worse
Disagree, neutral, agree

Sex (male/female)
Alive or dead
Blood group O, A, B, AB

VARIABILITY

Introduction to Statistics

Statistics is a collection of methods, a tool

for:
Planning

the collection of data,

Organizing data,
Summarizing data (meringkaskan)
Presentating data,
Analysing data,

VARIABILITY

Introduction to
Statistics

Statistics studies groups of people, objects, or data

The groups are usually not all of the possible people,

objects, or data

and produces summarizing information on the groups

groups are called samples

the larger collection of people, objects or data is called the
population.

Statistics attempts to predict measurements for a

population from measurements made on the smaller
sample.

Introduction to Statistics

Descriptive Statistics
Presenting

data
Summarizing data
Numerical or graphical representations of samples or
populations. Can include numerical measures such as
mode, median, mean, standard deviation. Also includes
images such as graphs, charts,

Inference-analytic Statistics
Search

for associations among variables

Prediction: search if findings in our sample study can
be applied on the population