Lecture-1.

Governing Laws for Thermal Radiation

Contents of the lecture
1.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
1.6 Geometrical Considerations
1.7 Governing Laws for Thermal Radiation
1.8 Blackbody Radiation in a Wavelength Interval
1.10 Historical Note Origin of Quantum Mechanics
1.11 Blackbody Emission into a Medium Other than Vacuum
1.12 Summary

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer (or heat) is energy in transit due to
a temperature difference

HEAT TRANSFER MODES

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

The convention (in this lecture series) is

Amount of heat (energy) Q in J
Heat transfer rate Q
Heat flux

in W (J/s)
in W/m2

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Radiation which is given off by a body

because of its temperature is called
thermal radiation

A body of a temperature larger than 0 K

emits thermal radiation

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

A scene from Silence of the lambs

A photograph of a car
taken with
an
ordinary
camera

taken with
an
infrared
camera

The number plate has been wiped out

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

RELEVANCE OF THERMAL RADIATION

Q conduction T1 T2
Q
T T
convection

4
4

Qradiation T1 T2

When no medium is present radiation is the only

mode of heat transfer

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Classical theory

Quantum theory

E photon h v

h 6.63 10

34

J s

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

SPEED, FREQUENCY and WAVELENGTH

For any wave:

w
Determined
by the medium

Determined by
the source

For electromagnetic waves:

c
c=3108 m/s ( in vacuum)
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

SPEED, FREQUENCY and WAVELENGTH

For a medium other than vacuum:

c medium

c
nmedium

The frequency stays the same so,

medium

nmedium

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

COMMON UNITS FOR WAVELENGTH

1 micrometer = 10-6 m
1 nanometer = 10-9 m
1 angstrom = 10-10 m

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.1 (Calculate energy of photons)

Energy in
Number of
Frequency
Photon
photons in a
electron
(Hz)
energy in J
joule of energy
volts
Short radio
6.6310-27
4.110-8
1.51026
waves
=107
Visible light
4.1
1.51018
6.6310-19
waves
=1015
X-rays
6.6310-16
4.1103
1.51015
=1018
Gamma
6.6310-14
4.1105
1.51013
rays
=1020
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

THERMAL RADIATION

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.6 Geometrical Considerations

1.6.1 Normal to a Surface Element

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.6.2 Solid Angle

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.2
Derive formula for calculating the length of an arc and
the circumference of a circle.

ds R d
2

Plane angle
in radiance

s R d R 2 1
1

Length of an arc Radius Plane angle in radians

Circumference of the circle R 2

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Derive formula for calculating the area of a sphere

dA R d
2

The solid angle

in steradians

A R d R 2 1
2

Area of a part of the sphere

Radius Solid angle in steradians
2

How to calculate the solid angle?

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

How to calculate the solid angle?

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

How to calculate the solid angle?

dAs
d 2
R
2

dAs R d R sin d R sin d d

d sin d d

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Now we can complete the integration since we know

how to calculate the solid angle:
2

2 2

1 1

A R 2 d R 2 sin d d

R 2 1 cos
2

R 2 1 (cos 1 cos 2 )
2

Area (hemisphere) R 2 (1 0) 2 R
2

Solid angle for a hemisphere is

Solid angle for a sphere is

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.6.3 Area and Projected Area

dAP dA cos

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.6.4 Radiation Intensity and Irradiation

indicates direction

W
i is the spectral intensity in 2
m (Projected Area) sr m
'

W
i is the total intensity in 2
m (Projected Area) sr
'

i i d
'

'

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Irradiation
'
i
( , , ) cos d

all directions

2 / 2

'
i
( , , ) cos sin d d

0 0

for isotropic incoming radiation

/2

1
i' sin( 2 ) d (2 )
2
0

1
/2
'
i cos(2 ) 0 i'
2
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

For isotropic radiation

g i

'

g i

'

An important integral in radiation

hemisphere

cos d

2 / 2

cos sin d d

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.7 Governing Laws for Thermal Radiation

1.7.1 Black Body Radiation
Real surfaces (bodies)

g g g g
reflectivity
absorptivity

transmissivity
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

BLACK BODY RADIATION

Definition of a black body

A black body is defined as an ideal body that all

incident radiation pass into it and internally absorbs
all the incident radiation.
This is true for radiation of all wavelengths and for all angles
of incidence
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

BLACK BODY RADIATION

Properties:

Black body is a perfect emitter

In a black body enclosure radiation is isotropic
Black body is a perfect emitter in each direction
Black body is a perfect emitter at any wavelength
Total radiation of a black body into vacuum is a
function of temperature only

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

The angular distribution of radiation intensity

emitted by a black body

e b

'
'
i

cos

i
b
b

hemisphere

'
cos

i
b

hemisphere

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.7.2 Plancks Radiation Law

C1
1
e b ( , T ) i ( , T ) 5 C2 / T
e
1
'
b

C1 3.7418 10

16

C2 1.438769 10

W m

mK

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Plancks Radiation Law

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Plancks Radiation Law

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

e b ( , T )
C1
1

C / T
5
5
T
T e 2 1

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

See Example 1.4 of the lecture notes to understand

the meaning of:

Frequency distribution
Cumulative frequency distribution
Relative cumulative frequency distribution

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4

Height per
class (cm)

Number of
students
-Frequency

Class mark
(cm)

153-159
160-166
167-173
174-180
181-187
188-194
195-201
202-208

4
12
18
25
33
22
11
5
TOTAL 130

156
163
170
177
184
191
198
205

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4
Histogram and frequency polygon of heights of 130 students

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4

Area f ( x) dx (4 12 18 25 33 22 11 5) 130
P

7cm is the width of the class

Area the total number of students (130)

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4

Cumulative distribution
(less than the upper class boundary)
Height (cm)
Number of students
Less than 153 cm
0
Less than 160 cm
4
Less than 167 cm
16
Less than 174 cm
34
Less than 181 cm
59
Less than 188 cm
92
Less than 195 cm
114
Less than 201 cm
125
Less than 208 cm
130

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4
Students smaller than 174 cm

1
1
F(less than 174cm) 4 12 18 (4 12 18)

174

f ( x) dx
0

The relative cumulative distribution

174

4 12 18
F (less than 174 cm)

130

f ( x) dx

f ( x) dx
0

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4

Cumulative distribution

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.7.3 Wiens Displacement Law

We are looking for a wavelength that maximizes
the Plancks function for a given temperature

1
C1
1
C 2 / T
5
e b ( , T ) 5 C2 / T
C1 e
1
e
1

1
de b
C1 C2 / T
(5) 6 e
1
d

2
C1
C2
C 2 / T
C 2 / T
2
5 (1) e
1 e
(1) 0

C2
1
T C2 / T
5 1 e

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

C2
1
f ( T )
C2 / T
5 1 e

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Wiens Law

max T C3 2,898 m K

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.7.4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law

e b e b ( , T ) d ?
0

e&b

C1

C2 / T
5

T 4 C1
3
d 4
d
C2 e 1
1
0

C2

e 1 d 15
0

C1
e b 4 T 4 T 4
C2 15

5.67 10 W/(m K )
8

Stefan-Boltzmann
constant

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.8 Blackbody Radiation in a Wavelength Interval

F1T _ 2T

e ( , T ) d
1

e ( , T ) d
0

e ( , T ) d
4
T 1

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

F1T _ 2T

e ( , T ) d
4 b
T 1
1

T 4

e ( , T ) d e ( , T ) d
b

F0 _ 2T F0 _ 1T

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

F1T _ 2T

1T
2T e&b ( , T )

e&b ( , T )

d (T )
d(T )
5
5
T
T
0

F
0 _ 2T

F0 _ 1T

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.9 Blackbody Emission into a Medium Other than Vacuum

C1
1
e b ( , T ) 5 C2 / T
e
1

m
n
h cm
C2 m
C2 / n
k

c
cm
n
C1m 2 h c C1 / n
2
m

e mb (m , T ) n e b ( , T )
3

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

e bm (m , T ) n e b ( , T )
3

n- refractive index

Plancks function in vacuum

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

e bm n T
2

Wiens Displacement Law

C3
max,n T
n

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.10 Historical Note Origin of Quantum Mechanics

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

a
1
e b ( , T ) 5 b / T
e
1

The challenge was in

deriving a and b constants
from the first principle

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Quantification of energy (Max Planck 1990)

E mhv
m=1,2,3,... quantum number
Ten years later Planck wrote:
My futile attempts to fit the elementary quantum of
action (h) somehow into the classical theory continued for
a number of years, and they cost me a great deal of efforts

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

In 1905 Albert Einstein made an assumption

the energy of a light was concentrated into
localized bundles later called photons

E h

Planck, the originator of the h constant, did not accept

at once Einsteins photons. In 1913 Planck wrote about
Einstein that he sometimes have missed the target in his
speculations, as for example in his theory of light
quanta,
cannot really be held against him
In 1918 Planck received a Nobel prize for his discovery
of energy quanta
In 1921 Einstein received his Nobel prize for his service to
theoretical physics and specially for discovery of the law of
photoelectric effect
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.12 Summary
Students should understand:
The concepts of radiation intensity and emissive power
The radiation laws for black-body radiation
Plancks law
Wiens law
Stefan-Boltzmann law

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006