The Beginning of the

Quantum Physics
Blackbody Radiation
and Plancks Hypothesis

Beginning of the Quantum Physics

Some Problems with Classical Physics
Vastly different values of electrical
resistance
Temperature Dependence of Resistivity
of metals
Blackbody Radiation
Photoelectric effect
Discrete Emission Lines of Atoms
Constancy of speed of light

Blackbody Radiation:
Solids heated to very high
temperatures emit visible light
(glow)
Incandescent Lamps (tungsten
filament)

The color changes with

temperature

At high temperatures emission color is

whitish, at lower temperatures color is
more reddish, and finally disappear
Radiation is still present, but
invisible
Can be detected as heat
Heaters; Night Vision Goggles

Blackbody Radiation: Observations

Experiment:
Focus the suns rays or direct a parabolic mirror
with a heating spiral onto combustible material
the material will flare up and burn

Materials absorb
as well as emit radiation

Blackbody Radiation
All object at finite temperatures radiate
electromagnetic waves (emit radiation)
Objects emit a spectrum of radiation depending on
their temperature and composition
From classical point of view, thermal radiation
originates from accelerated charged particles in the
atoms near surface of the object

Blackbody Radiation
A blackbody is an object that absorbs
all radiation incident upon it
Its emission is universal, i.e. independent of the
nature of the object
Blackbodies radiate, but do not reflect and so
are black

Blackbody Radiation is EM radiation

emitted by blackbodies

Blackbody Radiation
There are no absolutely blackbodies in nature this is
idealization
But some objects closely mimic blackbodies:
Carbon black or Soot (reflection is <<1%)
The closest objects to the ideal blackbody is a cavity with
small hole (and the universe shortly after the big bang)

Entering radiation has little chance of

escaping, and mostly absorbed by the
walls. Thus the hole does not reflect
incident radiation and behaves like an
ideal absorber, and looks black

Kirchoff's Law of Thermal Radiation (1859)

absorptivity is the ratio of the energy absorbed by the wall to
the energy incident on the wall, for a particular wavelength.
The emissivity of the wall is defined as the ratio of emitted
energy to the amount that would be radiated if the wall were a
perfect black body at that wavelength.
At thermal equilibrium, the emissivity of a body (or surface)
equals its absorptivity
=
If this equality were not obeyed, an object could never reach
thermal equilibrium. It would either be heating up or cooling
down.
For a blackbody = 1
Therefore, to keep your frank warm or your ice cream cold at a
baseball game, wrap it in aluminum foil
What color should integrated circuits be to keep them cool?

Blackbody Radiation Laws

Emission is continuous

The total emitted energy increases with temperature, and

represents, the total intensity (Itotal) the energy per unit time
per unit area or power per unit area of the blackbody
emission at given temperature, T.
It is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law

I total T

= 5.67010-8 W/m2-K4

To get the emission power, multiply Intensity Itotal by area A

Blackbody Radiation
The maximum shifts to shorter wavelengths
with increasing temperature
the color of heated body changes from red to orange to
yellow-white with increasing temperature

5780 K is the temperature of the Sun

Blackbody Radiation

Blackbody Radiation
The wavelength of maximum intensity
per unit wavelength is defined by the
Wiens Displacement Law:

max T b
b = 2.89810-3 m/K is a constant
For, T ~ 6000 K,

max

2.898 10

6000

483 nm

Blackbody Radiation Laws:

Classical Physics View
Average energy of a harmonic oscillator is <E>
Intensity of EM radiation emitted by classical
harmonic oscillators at wavelength per unit
wavelength:
2
I ( , T ) 3 E
c
Or per unit frequency :
2 2
I ( , T ) 3 E
c

Blackbody Radiation Laws:

Classical Physics View
In classical physics, the energy of an oscillator is
continuous, so the average is calculated as:

EP( E)dE EP e

P( E) P0 e

E
k BT

P( E)dE
0

P e
0

E
k BT

E
k BT

dE
k BT

dE

is the Boltzmann distribution

E k BT

Blackbody Radiation:
Classical Physics View
This gives the Rayleigh-Jeans Law
2 E
2 k BT
2 2
2 2
I ( , T )

, I ( , T ) 3 E 2 k BT
3
3
c
c
c
c

Agrees well with experiment long wavelength (low

frequency) region

Predicts infinite intensity at very short wavelengths

(higher frequencies) Ultraviolet Catastrophe
Predicts diverging total emission by black bodies

No fixes could be found using classical

physics

Plancks Hypothesis
Max Planck postulated that
A system undergoing simple harmonic motion with
frequency can only have energies

E n nh
where n = 1, 2, 3,
and h is Plancks constant

h = 6.6310-34 J-s

Plancks Theory
E nh
E (n 1)h nh h

E is a quantum of energy
For = 3kHz
E h

E 6.63 10

34

J s 3000 s

2 10

30

Plancks Theory
As before:

2 2
I ( , T ) 3 E
c

nh

Now energy levels are discrete,

So

P( E )

P0 e

n
k BT

Pe
n 0

n
k BT

Sum to obtain average energy:

E n

nP e
0

n 0

P0e

e k BT 1

2 2
3
c

h
e

h
k BT

n
k BT

k BT

n0

2 2
I ( , T ) 3
c

e k BT 1

Blackbody Radiation
2
I ( ) 2
c

h
h
exp
1
k BT

c is the speed of light, kB is Boltzmanns

constant, h is Plancks constant, and T is
the temperature

Plancks Theory
2h
1
I ( )
2
c
exp h /k BT 1
3

Plancks Theory
2h
1
I ( )
2
c
exp h /k BT 1
3

High Frequency - h >> kT

At room temperature, 300 K, kT= 1/40 eV
At = 1 m:
8
c
34 3 10
19
19
h h 6.63 10

1
.
99

10
~
2

10
J
6

10
h 1.99 10 19

1.24 eV
19
e
1.6 10

At 300 K:

h
1.24 40 49.6 1
kT

Blackbody Radiation from the Sun

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
IBB T4

Planks curve
max

IBB = T4
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
=5.6710-8 J/m2K4
More generally:
I = T4
is the emissivity
Wien's Displacement Law
peak T = 2.89810-3 m K
At T = 5778 K:
peak = 5.01510-7 m = 5,015 A

Energy Balance of
Electromagnetic Radiation
50% of energy emitted from the sun in visible range
Appears as white light above the atmosphere, peaked
Appears as yellow to red light due to Rayleigh scattering by the
atmosphere
Earth radiates infrared electromagnetic (EM) radiation
White light is
made of a range
of wave lengths

Glass
Prism

Step 4: Calculate energy emitted by Earth

Earth emits terrestrial long wave IR radiation
Assume Earth emits as a blackbody.
Calculate energy emission per unit time (Watts)

Blackbody Radiation

29

Notice color change as turn up power on light bulb.

Greenhouse Effect
Visible light passes
through atmosphere
and warms planets
surface
Atmosphere absorbs
infrared light from
surface, trapping heat

Why is it cooler on a mountain tops than in the valley?

Albedo and Atmosphere Affect

Planet Temperature

RE2

2
4
2
4
(1 a )4RSunTSun 4RETE (
),
2
4rE
Latm
is the mean free path in which the direction of IR emission is randomized
1
L
4RE2TE4
, atm , the optical depth
1

RSun `
TE TSun (1 a )1/ 4 (1 )1/ 4
2rE

Einsteins Photon Interpretation of

Blackbody Radiation
EM Modes:
Two sine waves traveling in opposite directions create a standing wave

y ( x, t ) A sin( kx t ) A sin( kx t ) 2 A sin kx cos t

For EM radiation reflecting off a perfect metal, the reflected amplitude
equals the incident amplitude and the phases differ by rad
E = 0 at the wall
For allowed modes between two walls separated by a: sin(kx) = 0 at x = 0, a
This can only occur when, ka = n, or k = n/a, n = 1,2,3
In terms of the wavelength, k = 2/ = n/a, or /2 = a/n
This is for 1D, for 2D, a standing wave is proportional to:

y ( x, y, t ) ~ sin k1 x sin k 2 y cos t , k1 n1 / a, k 2 n2 / a

For 3D a standing wave is proportional to:

y ( x, y, z , t ) ~ sin k1 x sin k 2 y sin k 2 z cos t , k1 n1 / a, k 2 n2 / a, k3 n3 / a

Density of EM Modes, 1

k k1 x k 2 y k3 z (k1 , k 2 , k3 ) (n1 , n2 , n3 ) (n1 , n2 , n3 )

a
a
a
a
May represent allowed wave vectors k by points on a unit lattice in a 3D
abstract number space
k = 2/. But f = c, so f = c/ = c/[(/2))(2)] = c/[(1/k)((2)]=ck/2
f is proportional to k = n /a in 1D and can generalize to higher dimensions:

f is proportional to | k | k k12 k 22 k32

n12 n22 n32 n
a
a
1
c
f
ck
n,
2
2a
where, n is the distance in abstract number space from the origin (0,0,0)
To the point (n1,n2 n3)

Density of EM Modes, 2
The number of modes between f and (f+df) is the number of points in
number space with radii between n and (n+dn) in which n1, n2, n3,> 0,
which is 1/8 of the total number of points in a shell with inner radius n and
outer radius (n+dn), multiplied by 2, for a total factor of 1/4
The first factor arises because modes with positive and negative n
correspond to the same modes
The second factor arises because there are two modes with
perpendicular polarization (directions of oscillation of E) for each
value of f
Since the density of points in number space is 1 (one point per unit
volume), the number of modes between f and (f+df) is the number of
points dN in number space in the positive octant of a shell with inner
radius n and outer radius (n+dn) multiplied by 2
dN = 2 dV', where dV = where dV is the relevant volume in
numbr space
The volume of a complete shell is the area of the shell multiplied by its
thickness, 4 n2dn
The number of modes with associated radii in number space between n
and (n+dn) is, therefore, dN = 2 dV = (2)(1/8)4 n2dn = n2dn

Density of EM Modes, 3
The density of modes is the number of modes per unit frequency:

dN n 2 dn
2 dn

n
df
df
df
This may be expressed in terms of f once n and dn/df are so expressed

c
f
n
2a
2a
dn 2a
So, n
f and

c
df
c
dN
2a 2 2a
a3 2
2 dn
n
(
f ) ( ) 8 3 f
df
df
c
c
c
This is density of modes in a volume a3
For a unit volume, the density of states is:

dN 8 2
3 f
df
c

Modes Density

How many EM modes per unit frequency are there in a cubic cavity
with sides a = 10 cm at a wavelength of = 1 micron = 10-6 m?

f = c, f = c/ = 3x108/10-6 = 3x1014

dN
a3 2
8 3 f
df
c

dN
(10 1 ) 3
8 ( 3 28 24)
14 2
1
8
(
3

10
)

10

8
.
4

10
84
8 3
df
(3 10 )
3

Blackbody Radiation
Einstein argued that the intensity of black body radiation I(f),
reflects the state of thermal equilibrium of the radiation field
The energy density (energy per unit volume per unit frequency) within the
black body is:

u ( f )

dN
E , where E is the average energy of a mode of EM radiation
df
at frequency f and temperature T

The intensity is given by:

I( f )

1c
c dN
u ( f )
E
22
4 df

Since (a) only the flux is directed out of the black body
and (b) the average component of the velocity of light In a direction normal to the
surface is

Blackbody Radiation
I( f )

But

E n , n 0,1,2,3...

dN 8 2
3 f
df
c

hf

and

E n

c dN
E
4 df

nP e
n0

P0e

n
k BT

k BT

e k BT 1

n 0

So

2h 3
1
I ( )
c 2 exp h / k BT 1

hf

hf
k BT

, as before