Chapt20 Lecture

Biology
Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht
Chapter 20
Viruses, Bacteria, and
Archaea
Lecture Outline
See separate FlexArt PowerPoint slides
for all figures and tables pre-inserted into
PowerPoint without notes.
Copyright McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Outline
20.1 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

20.2 The Prokaryotes
20.3 The Bacteria
20.4 The Archaea
20.1 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions
Virus
Associated with a number of plant, animal, and human diseases
Can only reproduce using the metabolic machinery of the host
cell
noncellular
May have a DNA or RNA genome.
Invention of the electron microscope allowed these infectious
agents to be first seen
French chemist Louis Pasteur suggested that something
smaller than a bacterium was the cause of rabies
Pasteur used the word virus, Latin for poison.
Viral Diseases in Humans
Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Viral Structure and Classification:
Each type has at least two parts (capsid and core)
Viruses are characterized by
Size and shape
10400 nm in diameter
Type of nucleic acid core

Single stranded or double stranded? DNA or RNA?
Capsid or no capsid (outer layer composed of protein

subunits):
Some are enveloped by membrane
Others naked
5

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Capsid (protein)
Covering
Envelope (not found in all viruses)
Virus particle
Nucleic acid molecule (DNA or RNA)
Inner core
Various proteins (enzymes)
Viruses
Viruses
Viruses:
Are obligate intracellular parasites

Cannot reproduce outside a living cell
Are either active or inactive, instead of living or non-living
Can be cultured only inside living cells

Chicken egg
Tissue culture
Three hypotheses about viral origin and evolution
Proteins and nucleic acids, organic molecules in viruses, evolved and
viruses may have arisen from these two basic polymers when cells did.
Viruses may have been derived from pieces of cell genomes.
Viruses may have evolved backwards from living cells.
Viruses degenerated from living cells.

Reproduction of Viruses:
1. Attachment: Virus gains entry into specific host cell based on
host-specific match between virus surface molecules and host
cell receptors.
2. Penetration: Host cell engulfs virus or virus injects its genome
into the cytoplasm.
3. Biosynthesis: New viral components are synthesized using
host cells machinery and energy.
4. Maturation: Viral components are assembled into new viruses.
5. Release: New viruses exit host cell through lysis or budding in
order to infect new host cells.
10

Bacteriophages Viruses that infect bacterial cells
There are two types of bacteriophage life cycles.
The lytic cycle
Viral reproduction occurs
The host cell undergoes lysis
Hundreds of virus particles are released
The lysogenic cycle
Viral reproduction does not occur immediately but may occur in the future.
Virus becomes integrated into the host genome and may reenter lytic cycle.
This is known as latency and the latent viral DNA is called a prophage.
Diphtheria is caused by a prophage-carrying bacterium, which produces a
toxin that damages the lining of the upper respiratory tract, restricting
breathing.
11
Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

1. ATTACHMENT
Capsid combines with receptor.
bacterial
cell wall
bacterial
DNA
nucleic acid
capsid
12

1. ATTACHMENT
bacterial
cell wall
bacterial
DNA
nucleic acid
capsid
2. PENETRATION
Viral DNA enters host.
viral
DNA
13

1. ATTACHMENT
bacterial
cell wall
bacterial
DNA
nucleic acid
capsid
2. PENETRATION
LYTIC
CYCLE
viral
DNA
3. BIOSYNTHESIS
Viral components are synthesized.
14

1. ATTACHMENT
bacterial
cell wall
nucleic acid
bacterial
DNA
capsid
2. PENETRATION
LYTIC
CYCLE
4. MATURATION
Assembly of viral components.
viral
DNA
3. BIOSYNTHESIS
15

1. ATTACHMENT
bacterial
cell wall
nucleic acid
bacterial
DNA
capsid
2. PENETRATION
5. RELEASE
New viruses leave host cell.
LYTIC
CYCLE
4. MATURATION
viral
DNA
3. BIOSYNTHESIS
16

1. ATTACHMENT
bacterial
cell wall
nucleic acid
bacterial
DNA
capsid
2. PENETRATION
5. RELEASE
viral
DNA
LYTIC
CYCLE
4. MATURATION
INTEGRATION Viral DNA is integrated

into bacterial DNA and then is passed
on when bacteria reproduce.
viral
DNA
3. BIOSYNTHESIS
LYSOGENIC
CYCLE
17

1. ATTACHMENT
bacterial
cell wall
nucleic acid
bacterial
DNA
capsid
5. RELEASE
2. PENETRATION
LYTIC
CYCLE
4. MATURATION

viral
DNA
viral
DNA
3. BIOSYNTHESIS
LYSOGENIC
CYCLE
18

1. ATTACHMENT
bacterial
cell wall
nucleic acid
bacterial
DNA
capsid
5. RELEASE
2. PENETRATION
LYTIC
CYCLE
4. MATURATION

viral
DNA
viral
DNA
3. BIOSYNTHESIS
LYSOGENIC
CYCLE
prophage
19
daughter cells

20
Eye of Science/Science Source

1. ATTACHMENT
bacterial
cell wall
nucleic acid
bacterial
DNA
capsid
2. PENETRATION
5. RELEASE
LYTIC
CYCLE

viral
DNA
viral
DNA
LYSOGENIC
CYCLE
4. MATURATION
3. BIOSYNTHESIS
prophage
21
daughter cells
Eye of Science/Science Source

Reproduction of Animal Viruses:
Animal virus enters the host cell
Uncoating releases viral DNA or RNA
Budding:
Viral particles released in a bud
Acquires a membranous envelope
Retroviruses (HIV, the virus that causes AIDS)

Contain reverse transcriptase
Carries out RNA cDNA reverse transcription
cDNA becomes integrated into host DNA
Replicated as host DNA replicates
HIV may remain latent for years
Viral DNA is transcribed; new viruses are produced
22
Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

1. Attachment
receptor
nuclear
pore
23

1. Attachment
receptor
envelope
spike
capsid
2. Entry
nuclear
pore
24

1. Attachment
receptor
envelope
spike
2. Entry
capsid
nuclear
pore
3. Reverse transcription
viral RNA
reverse transcriptase
25

1. Attachment
receptor
envelope
spike
2. Entry
capsid
nuclear
pore
viral RNA
cDNA
26

1. Attachment
receptor
envelope
spike
2. Entry
capsid
nuclear
pore
viral RNA
cDNA
Integration
27

1. Attachment
receptor
envelope
spike
2. Entry
capsid
nuclear
pore
viral RNA
cDNA
Integration
host DNA
provirus
28

1. Attachment
receptor
envelope
spike
2. Entry
capsid
nuclear
pore
viral RNA
cDNA
Integration
host DNA
provirus
29

1. Attachment
receptor
envelope
spike
2. Entry
capsid
nuclear
pore
viral RNA
cDNA
Integration
host DNA
ribosome
viral
mRNA
provirus
30

1. Attachment
receptor
envelope
spike
2. Entry
capsid
nuclear
pore
viral RNA
cDNA
Integration
host DNA
ribosome
viral
mRNA
4. Biosynthesis
ER
provirus
viral
enzyme
capsid
protein
31

1. Attachment
receptor
envelope
spike
2. Entry
capsid
nuclear
pore
viral RNA
cDNA
Integration
host DNA
ribosome
viral
mRNA
4. Biosynthesis
ER
provirus
viral
enzyme
capsid
protein
5. Maturation
6. Release
viral RNA
32
Flu Virus
A flu virus has an H (hemagglutinin) spike and an N
(neuraminidase) spike
H spike allows the virus to bind to the receptor
16 different types
N spike attacks host plasma membranes

Allows mature viruses to exit the cell
9 different types
Each type of spike can occur in different varieties.

Our immune system only recognizes H spikes and N spikes it has
been exposed to.
Currently the H7N9 and H5N1 subtypes of flu virus are of great
concern because they can potentially become pandemics (global
outbreaks).
33
Spikes of Bird Flu Virus

capsid
RNA genome
envelope
N (neuraminidase)
spike
H (hemagglutinin)
spike
mutation 1
mutation 2
a. Viral genetic mutations occur in a bird host
Human
flu virus
Bird
Flu
virus
combination
In host cell
b. Combination of viral genes occurs in human host
34
Emerging Viruses
Emerging viruses are new or previously uncommon
illnesses.
Examples are AIDS, West Nile encephalitis, hantavirus
pulmonary syndrome (HPS), severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS), Ebola, hemorrhagic fever, and avian
influenza
Several types of events can cause emergence of viruses
A virus may extend its range.
Example: West Nile was transported to US and took hold in birds and mosquitoes
A genetic mutation may occur.

Example: Influenza strains H5N1, H1N1, and H7N9 were created through mutation
of flu viruses which only infected animals
It is necessary to obtain flu vaccine each year due to the rapidly mutating flu virus
35
36

Viruses are best known for causing infectious diseases in
plants and animals.
Herpes, HIV, cancer
Viruses lack metabolism; thus, antibiotics have no effect
Viroids
Naked strands of RNA
Many crop diseases
Prions
Protein molecules with contagious tertiary structure
TSEs are neurodegenerative diseases which destroy nerve tissue in the brain
They are untreatable and fatal
Some human and other animal diseases: Mad cow disease

Some practices, including eating brains of cattle, transmitted the cattle
disease (BSE or bovine spongiform encephalopathy) to humans.
37
20.2 The Prokaryotes

Include bacteria and archaea, which are fully
functioning cells
Means before a nucleus
Microscopic
Range in size from 110 m in length and 0.71.5 m in
width
Abundant in air, water, and soil and on most objects

Louis Pasteur showed that a previously sterilized
broth cannot become cloudy with growth unless it is
exposed directly to the air.
38
Pasteurs Experiment
HYPOTHESIS A: Bacteria arise spontaneously in a broth.

HYPOTHESIS B: Bacteria in the air contaminate a broth.
FIRST EXPERIMENT
SECOND EXPERIMENT
flask is open to air

flasks outside building
opened briefly
boiling to
sterilize
broth
89% show growth
boiling to
sterilize
broth
air here is pure
air enters here

flasks inside building
opened briefly
boiling to
sterilize
broth
bacteria collect here

32% show growth
CONCLUSION:
Hypothesis B is supported because relative concentrations of bacteria in
the air explain the results.
100% have no growth

CONCLUSION:
Hypothesis B is supported because when air reaching the broth contains
no bacteria, the flask remains free of growth.
39
The Prokaryotes
Prokaryote Structure
Lack a membrane-bounded nucleus (DNA in
nucleoid region)
Outer cell wall
Some move by means of flagella
Lack membranous organelles
May have accessory rings of DNA (plasmids)
40
Prokaryote Structure
Prokaryotic cell
Cell envelope
Glycocalyx
Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Thylakoids (cyanobacteria)
Appendages
Flagella
Conjugation pilus
Fimbriae
41
Features of Prokaryotic Cells

a.
capsule
gel-like coating outside the cell wall
made up of a polysaccharide layer
called glycocalyx.
plasma membrane
sheet that surrounds the
cytoplasm and regulates
entrance and exit of molecules
fimbriae
hairlike bristles that allow
adhesion to surfaces
b.
plasma
membrane
cell wall
structure that provides
support and shapes the cell
cell wall
capsule
hook
nucleoid
location of the
bacterial chromosome
conjugation pilus
elongated, hollow appendage
used to transfer DNA to other cells
flagellum
rotating filament that propels the cell
ribosome
site of protein
synthesis
filament
basal body
cytoplasm
semifluid solution surrounded by the plasma
membrane; contains nucleoid and ribosomes
42
The Prokaryotes
Reproduction in Prokaryotes
Asexual
Prokaryotes reproduce asexually by means of binary
fission.
Generation time is as short as 12 minutes
Mutations are generated rapidly and passed on to offspring
more quickly than eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes are haploid
Mutations are immediately subjected to natural selection.
Some bacteria form resistant endospores under

unfavorable conditions.
43
Binary Fission
cytoplasm
cell wall
nucleoid
0.5 m
CNRI/SPL/Science Source
44
The Prokaryotes
Methods of genetic recombination in the prokaryotes:
Conjugation
Conjugation pilus forms between two cells
Donor cell passes DNA to recipient cell through the pilus
Transformation
Occurs when bacterium picks up free pieces of DNA from other
prokaryotes
Becomes incorporated into genome
Transduction
Occurs when bacteriophages carry portions of bacterial DNA
from one cell to another
Serve as vectors
45
20.3 The Bacteria

Bacteria are the more common type of
prokaryote.
Over 9,000 different bacteria have been named.
Most bacterial cells are protected by a cell wall.

Contains peptidoglycan
Bacteria are commonly differentiated using the Gram

stain procedure.
When washed after staining:
Gram-positive bacteria retain dye and appear purple
Gram-negative bacteria do not retain dye and appear pink
Gram-negative bacteria have a second plasma membrane which blocks antibiotic
drugs, making infections difficult to treat
The difference is dependent on the construction of the cell wall.
46
47
The Bacteria
Structure of cell wall also of diagnostic use
Bacteria can be further classified in terms
of their three basic shapes:
Spiral (spirilli),
Rod (bacilli), and
Round (cocci)
48
Diversity of Bacteria
49
The Bacteria
Bacterial Metabolism:
Oxygen requirements:
Obligate aerobes unable to grow in the absence
of free oxygen
Obligate anaerobes unable to grow in the
presence of free oxygen
Examples: Botulism, gas gangrene, and tetanus
Facultative anaerobes able to grow in either the

presence or absence of free oxygen
50
The Bacteria
Autotrophic Bacteria:
Photoautotrophs
Use solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide to organic compounds
Photosynthetic
Anoxygenic Green sulfur and some purple bacteria living in oxygen-poor
conditions
Oxygenic
Chemoautotrophs
Oxidize inorganic compounds to obtain energy
Energy is used to reduce CO2 to an organic compound
Chemosynthetic
Live in environments such as deep sea vents 2.5 km below sea level
51
52
The Bacteria
Heterotrophic Bacteria
Most prokaryotes are chemoheterotrophs that take in organic nutrients.

Aerobic saprotrophs decompose most large organic molecules to smaller molecules.
Essential components of a healthy ecosystem
May be free-living or symbiotic (two different species live together in an

intimate way)
Commensalism
One population modifies the environment in such a way that a second population benefits.
Obligate anaerobes live in our intestine because bacterium E. coli uses up oxygen.
Mutualism
Both species benefit from association.
Mutualistic bacteria live in human intestines and release vitamins K and B 12 which help produce blood
components.
Parasitism
Parasite benefits at host expense; disease-causing bacteria are called pathogens
Many form endospores
53
Nodules of a Legume
54
The Endospore of Clostridium tetani

endospore
Alfred Pasieka/SPL/Science Source
55
Bacterial Diseases in Humans
56
The Bacteria
Antibiotic compounds fall into two classes.
Compounds that inhibit protein biosynthesis
Erythromycin
Tetracycline
Compounds that inhibit cell wall biosynthesis
These affect bacterial but not animal cells

Penicillin
Ampicillin
Fluroquinolone
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics is increasing.

Genes conferring resistance can be transferred among bacteria by
transformation, conjugation, or transduction.
Now 90% of Staphlococcus aureus are resistant to penicillin and
increasingly to methicillin (MRSA).
MRSA is common in hospitals and nursing facilities.
57
The Bacteria
Cyanobacteria
Formerly called the blue-green algae (Cyanophyta)
Cyanobacteria are Gram-negative bacteria that are
photosynthetic.
Believed to be responsible for introducing oxygen into the
primitive atmosphere
Lack visible means of locomotion

Can live in extreme environments
In association with fungi, form lichens
They possess heterocysts, cells without nuclei, where nitrogen fixation
occurs.
Cyanobacterial blooms result from pollution in lakes and ponds.
58
Diversity Among the

Cyanobacteria
59
20.4 The Archaea

Archaea were formerly considered bacteria
Carl Woese and George Fox discovered that the
base sequence of their rRNA differs from
bacteria.
Other differences:
Archaea do not have peptidoglycan in their cell walls
like the bacteria.
Archaea are biochemically more like eukarya than
bacteria.
Archaea are now thought to be more closely

related to eukarya than to bacteria.
60
The Archaea
Many live in harsh conditions:
Anaerobic marshes
Methanogens
Produce methane from hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide
Salty lakes
Halophiles
Require high salt concentrations for growth
Hot sulfur springs

Thermoacidophiles
Reduce sulfides and survive best at temperatures above 80C
Plasma membranes contain unusual lipids that confer tolerance
of high temperatures.
61
Extreme Habitats: Salt Lakes
62
Extreme Habitats: Hot Springs
63
Extreme Habitats: Swamps
64

Chapt20 Lecture

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Chapt20 Lecture

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Biology

Copyright McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

20.1 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

20.1 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Pasteur used the word virus, Latin for poison.

Viral Diseases in Humans

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Type of nucleic acid core

Capsid or no capsid (outer layer composed of protein

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Are obligate intracellular parasites

Can be cultured only inside living cells

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

The lysogenic cycle

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

INTEGRATION Viral DNA is integrated

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

INTEGRATION Viral DNA is integrated

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

INTEGRATION Viral DNA is integrated

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles in Prokaryotes

INTEGRATION Viral DNA is integrated

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Retroviruses (HIV, the virus that causes AIDS)

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

Reproduction of the Retrovirus HIV

N spike attacks host plasma membranes

Each type of spike can occur in different varieties.

Spikes of Bird Flu Virus

a. Viral genetic mutations occur in a bird host

A genetic mutation may occur.

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Some human and other animal diseases: Mad cow disease

20.2 The Prokaryotes

Abundant in air, water, and soil and on most objects

HYPOTHESIS A: Bacteria arise spontaneously in a broth.

flask is open to air

89% show growth

air here is pure

air enters here

bacteria collect here

100% have no growth

Features of Prokaryotic Cells

Some bacteria form resistant endospores under

20.3 The Bacteria

Most bacterial cells are protected by a cell wall.

Bacteria are commonly differentiated using the Gram

The difference is dependent on the construction of the cell wall.