Ch11.

Fluids
Mass Density
Fluids are materials that can flow, and they include both gases and liquids.

DEFINITION OF MASS DENSITY

The mass density

is the mass m of a substance divided by its volume V:

3
SI Unit of Mass Density: kg/m
1

Mass Densities of Common Substances

Solids

3
(Unit: kg/m )

Aluminum

2 700

Ice

Brass

8 470

Iron (steel)

7 860

Concrete

2 200

Lead

11300

Copper

8 890

Quartz

2 660

Diamond

3 520

Silver

10 500

Gold

19 300

Wood (yellow pine)

917

550

Gases

Liquids
Blood (whole,
37C)

1060

Ethyl alcohol

806

Mercury

13600

Oil (hydraulic)
Water (4 C)

800
1 103

Air

1.29

Carbon dioxide

1.98

Helium

0.179

Hydrogen

0.0899

Nitrogen

1.25

Oxygen

1.43

Gases have the smallest densities.

3

Example1.
Blood as a Fraction of Body Weight
The body of a man whose weight is 690 N contains about 5.2 10

3
m (5.5 qt) of blood. (a) Find the

bloods weight and (b) express it as a percentage of the body weight.

(a)

(b)

A convenient way to compare densities: specific gravity

Specific gravity has no units.

Pressure
2
The SI unit for pressure is a newton/meter
2
(N/m ), a combination that is referred to as a
pascal (Pa).
5
10 Pa = 1 bar
Another unit for pressure is pounds per square
2
inch (lb/in. ), often abbreviated as psi.

In general, a static fluid cannot produce a

force parallel to a surface.
Pressure has no directional characteristic.
The force generated by the pressure of a
static fluid is always perpendicular to the
surface that the fluid contacts.

Example2.
The Force on a Swimmer
5
Suppose the pressure acting on the back of a swimmers hand is 1.2 10 Pa, a realistic value near the
3 2
bottom of the diving end of a pool. The surface area of the back of the hand is 8.4 10 m (a) Determine
the magnitude of the force that acts on it. (b) Discuss the direction of the force.

(a)

(b) The hand (palm downward) is oriented parallel to the bottom of the pool. Since the water pushes perpendicularly against the back
of the hand, the force F is directed downward in the drawing. This downward-acting force is balanced by an upward-acting force on
the palm, so that the hand is in equilibrium. If the hand were rotated by 90, the directions of these forces would also be rotated by
90, always being perpendicular to the hand.

Pressure and Depth in a Static Flui

d

10

11

ConceptualExample3.
The Hoover Dam
Lake Mead is the largest wholly artificial reservoir in the
United States and was formed after the completion of the
Hoover Dam in 1936. The water in the reservoir backs up
behind the dam for a considerable distance (about 200 km
or 120 miles). Suppose that all the water were removed,
except for a relatively narrow vertical column in contact
with the dam.

12

A side view of this hypothetical situation, in which the water against the dam has the same depth as
in Figure part a. Would the Hoover Dam still be needed to contain the water in this hypothetical
reservoir, or could a much less massive structure do the job?

The dam for our imaginary reservoir would sustain the same forces that the Hoover Dam sustains
and would need to be equally large.

13

Example4. The Swimming Hole

The cross section of a swimming hole. Points A and B are both located at a distance of h = 5.50 m below
the surface of the water. Find the pressure at each of these two points.

14

Since points A, B, C, and D are at the same distance h beneath the liquid surface, the
pressure at each of them is the same.

15

Example5. Blood Pressure

Blood in the arteries is flowing, but as a first
approximation, the effects of this flow can be
ignored and the blood can be treated as a static
fluid. Estimate the amount by which the blood
pressure P2 in the anterior tibial artery at the foot
exceeds the blood pressure P1 in the aorta at the
heart when a person is (a) reclining horizontally
and (b) standing.

16

(a)

h = 0 m,

(b)

17

ConceptualExample6.
Pumping Water
Two methods for pumping water from a well. In one method,
the pump is submerged in the water at the bottom of the well,
while in the other, it is located at ground level. If the well is
shallow, either technique can be used. However, if the well is
very deep, only one of the methods works. Which is it?

A ground-level (on top of the ground) pump can only cause water
to rise to a certain maximum height, so it cannot be used for very
deep wells.
18

Check Your Understanding 1

A scuba diver is swimming under water, and the graph shows a plot of the water pressure acting on
the diver as a function of time. In each of the three regions, A

B,

C, and C

depth of the diver increase, decrease or remain constant?

A B: Increase

B C: Decrease

D: Remain constant

19

D, does the

Pressure Gauges
The atmospheric pressure can be determined
from the height h of the mercury in the tube,
the density

of mercury, and the

acceleration due to gravity.

PA = PB
(PB is Atmospheric pressure.)

20

P1 hg PA
If P1=0, then

If liquid is mercury,

PA hg
13.6 103 kg / m 3

h 29.9 inches ( 30inches)

(760mm)

What if water

( 1 103 )

h 29.9 13.6 407inches

34 feet!!
21

The height h is proportional to P2 Patm,

which is called the gauge pressure. The
gauge pressure is the amount by which the
container pressure differs from
atmospheric pressure. The actual value for
P2 is called the absolute pressure.

22

A sphygmomanometer is used to measure blood

pressure.

23

Pascal's Principle
PASCALS PRINCIPLE
Any change in the pressure applied to a completely
enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to all
parts of the fluid and the enclosing walls.

24

Example7. A Car Lift

In a hydraulic car lift, the input piston has a radius of r1 = 0.0120 m and a negligible weight. The
output plunger has a radius of r2 = 0.150 m. The combined weight of the car and the plunger is F2 = 20
2
3
500 N. The lift uses hydraulic oil that has a density of 8.00 10 kg/m . What input force F1 is needed
to support the car and the output plunger when the bottom surfaces of the piston and plunger are at (a)
the same level and (b) the levels with h = 1.10 m?

(a)

25

(b)

P2 = P1 +

gh

P2=F2/(r2 )andP1=F1/(r1 ):

F2
F1

gh
2
2
r2 r1

26

Archimedes' Principle
Buoyant force exists because fluid pressure is larger at greater
depths.

27

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
Any fluid applies a buoyant force to an object that is partially or completely immersed in it; the
magnitude of the buoyant force equals the weight of the fluid that the object displaces:

FB

Magnitude of buoyant force

Wfluid
Weight of displaced fluid

28

The effect that the buoyant force has depends on its strength compared with the strengths
of the other forces that are acting.

29

Example8. A Swimming Raft

A solid, square pinewood raft measures 4.0 m
on a side and is 0.30 m thick. (a) Determine
whether the raft floats in water, and (b) if so,
how much of the raft is beneath the surface (see
the distance h in the figure).

30

(a)

3
3
pine = 550 kg/m , Vpine = 4.0 m 4.0 m 0.30 m = 4.8 m

31

(b)

FB = 26 000 N = Wfluid ,

Vwater = 4.0 m 4.0 m h

32

ConceptualExample9. How Much W

ater Is Needed to Float a Ship?
A ship floating in the ocean is a familiar sight. But is all that water really necessary? Can an ocean vessel
float in the amount of water that a swimming pool contains, for instance?

All that is needed, in principle, is a

thin section of water that separates
the hull of the floating ship from the
sides of the canal.

33

A useful application of Archimedes principle can be found in car batteries.

34

Example10. A Goodyear Airship

Normally, a Goodyear airship, contains
3 3
about 5.40 10 m of helium (He)
3
whose density is 0.179 kg/m . Find the
weight of the load WL that the airship
can carry in equilibrium at an altitude
3
where the density of air is 1.20 kg/m .

35

36

Check Your Understanding 2

A glass is filled to the brim with water and has an ice cube floating in it. When the ice cube
melts, what happens?

a. Water spills out of the glass.

b. The water level in the glass drops.
c. The water level in the glass does not change.

(c)

37

Fluids in Motion
In steady flow the velocity of the fluid particles at any point is constant as time passes.
Unsteady flow exists whenever the velocity at a point in the fluid changes as time passes.

Turbulent flow is an extreme kind of unsteady flow

and occurs when there are sharp obstacles or bends
in the path of a fast-moving fluid.

38

Fluid flow can be compressible or incompressible, viscous or nonviscous.

An incompressible, nonviscous fluid is called an ideal fluid.

A streamline is a line drawn in the fluid such that a tangent to the streamline at any point is
parallel to the fluid velocity at that point.

39

Steady flow is often called streamline flow.

40

The Equation of Continuity

Equation of continuity: If a fluid enters one end of a pipe at a
certain rate (e.g., 5 kilograms per second), then fluid must
also leave at the same rate, assuming that there are no places
between the entry and exit points to add or remove fluid.
The mass of fluid per second (e.g., 5 kg/s) that flows through
a tube is called the mass flow rate.

41

Mass flow rate at position 2

Mass flow rate at position 1

m2
2 A2 v2
t
m1
1 A1v1
t
42

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

The mass flow rate ( Av) has the same value at every position along a tube that has a single entry
and a single exit point for fluid flow. For two positions along such a tube

1 A1v1 2 A2 v 2

3
= fluid density (kg/m )
2
A = cross-sectional area of tube (m )
2
v = fluid speed (m )

SI Unit of Mass Flow Rate: kg/s

43

Incompressible fluid

A1v1=A2v2

Q = Volume flow rate = Av

44

Example11. A Garden Hose

4 2
A garden hose has an unobstructed opening with a cross-sectional area of 2.85 10 m , from which
3 3
water fills a bucket in 30.0 s. The volume of the bucket is 8.00 10 m (about two gallons). Find the
speed of the water that leaves the hose through (a) the unobstructed opening and (b) an obstructed
opening with half as much area.

45

Example12. A Clogged Artery

In the condition known as atherosclerosis, a deposit or atheroma forms on the arterial wall and reduces the
opening through which blood can flow. In the carotid artery in the neck, blood flows three times faster
through a partially blocked region than it does through an unobstructed region. Determine the ratio of the
effective radii of the artery at the two places.

46

Check Your Understanding 3

Water flows from left to right through the five sections (A, B, C, D, E) of the pipe shown in the drawing.
In which section(s) does the water speed increase, decrease, and remain constant? Treat the water as an
incompressible fluid.

47

Speed
Increases

Speed
Decreases

Speed is
Constant

a.

A, B

D, E

b.

A, C, E

c.

D, E

A, B

d.

A, C, E

e.

A, B

C, D

d
48

Bernoulli's Equation

49

(a)In this horizontal pipe, the pressure in region 2 is greater than that in region 1. The difference in pressures
leads to the net force that accelerates the fluid to the right.

(b)When the fluid changes elevation, the pressure at the bottom is greater than that at the top, assuming the
cross-sectional area of the pipe is constant.

50

51

BERNOULLIS EQUATION
In the steady flow of a nonviscous, incompressible fluid of density

and the elevation y at any two points (1 and 2) are related by

, the pressure P, the fluid speed v,

52

Applications of Bernoulli's Equation

When a moving fluid is contained in a horizontal pipe, all parts of it have the same
elevation (y1 = y2) .

53

ConceptualExample13.
Tarpaulins and Bernoullis Equation
A tarpaulin is a piece of canvas that is used to cover a cargo, like that pulled by the truck. When the truck
is stationary the tarpaulin lies flat, but it bulges outward when the truck is speeding down the highway.
Account for this behavior.

The greater inside pressure generates a greater force

on the inner surface of the canvas, and the tarpaulin
bulges outward.

54

Example14.
An Enlarged Blood Vessel
An aneurysm is an abnormal enlargement of a blood vessel such as the aorta. Suppose that, because of an
aneurysm, the cross-sectional area A1 of the aorta increases to a value A2 = 1.7A1. The speed of the blood
3
(
= 1060 kg/m ) through a normal portion of the aorta is v1 = 0.40 m/s. Assuming that the aorta is

horizontal (the person is lying down), determine the amount by which the pressure P2 in the enlarged
region exceeds the pressure P1 in the normal region

55

56

57

58

Example15. Efflux Speed

The tank is open to the atmosphere at the top. Find an expression
for the speed of the liquid leaving the pipe at the bottom.

59

Check Your Understanding 4

Fluid is flowing from left to right through a pipe (see the drawing). Points A and B are at the same
elevation, but the cross-sectional areas of the pipe are different. Points B and C are at different
elevations, but the cross-sectional areas are the same. Rank the pressures at the three points, highest to
lowest.

a. A and B (a tie), C
b. C, A and B (a tie)
c. B, C, A

d. C, B, A
e. A, B, C

60

Viscous Flow
(a) In ideal (nonviscous) fluid flow, all fluid
particles across the pipe have the same velocity.

(b) In viscous flow, the speed of the fluid is zero at

the surface of the pipe and increases to a
maximum along the center axis.

61

For a highly viscous fluid, like thick honey, a large

force is needed; for a less viscous fluid, like water, a
smaller one will do. As part b of the drawing suggests,
we may imagine the fluid to be composed of many
thin horizontal layers. When the top plate moves, the
intermediate fluid layers slide over each other. The
velocity of each layer is different, changing uniformly
from v at the top plate to zero at the bottom plate.
The resulting flow is called laminar flow, since a thin
layer is often referred to as a lamina.

62

FORCE NEEDED TO MOVE A LAYER OF VISCOUS FLUID WITH A CONSTANT VELOCITY

The magnitude of the tangential force F required to move a fluid layer at a constant speed v, when the layer
has an area A and is located a perpendicular distance y from an immobile surface, is given by

where

Av
F
y

is the coefficient of viscosity.

SI Unit of Viscosity: Pas

Common Unit of Viscosity: poise (P)

63

Values of viscosity depend on the nature of the fluid. Under ordinary conditions, the viscosities of liquids are
significantly larger than those of gases. Moreover, the viscosities of either liquids or gases depend markedly on
temperature. Usually, the viscosities of liquids decrease as the temperature is increased. In contrast, the viscosities of
gases increase as the temperature is raised. An ideal fluid has

= 0 P.

64

3
Factors that determine the volume flow rate Q (in m /s) of the fluid.
First, a difference in pressures P2 P1 must be maintained between any two locations along the pipe for the fluid to
flow. In fact, Q is proportional to P2 P1, a greater pressure difference leading to a larger flow rate.
Second, a long pipe offers greater resistance to the flow than a short pipe does, and Q is inversely proportional to the
length L. Because of this fact, long pipelines, such as the Alaskan pipeline, have pumping stations at various places
along the line to compensate for a drop in pressure (see Figure 11.40).
Third, high-viscosity fluids flow less readily than low-viscosity fluids, and Q is inversely proportional to the viscosity
.
Finally, the volume flow rate is larger in a pipe of larger radius, other things being equal.

65

POISEUILLES LAW
A fluid whose viscosity is

, flowing through a pipe of radius R and length L, has a volume flow

rate Q given by

R P2 P1
Q
8L
4

where P1 and P2 are the pressures at the ends of the pipe.

66

Example16.GivinganInjection
A hypodermic syringe is filled with a solution whose
3
viscosity is 1.5 10 Pas. As the figure shows, the plunger
5 2
area of the syringe is 8.0 10 m , and the length of the
needle is 0.025 m. The internal radius of the needle is 4.0
4
10 m. The gauge pressure in a vein is 1900 Pa (14 mm of
mercury). What force must be applied to the plunger, so
6 3
that 1.0 10 m of solution can be injected in 3.0 s?

67

68

Concepts&CalculationsExample17.
Pressure and Force

69

The figure shows a rear view of a loaded two-wheeled wheelbarrow on a horizontal surface. It has
balloon tires and a weight of W = 684 N, which is uniformly distributed. The left tire has a contact area
4 2
with the ground of AL = 6.610 m , whereas the right tire is underinflated and has a contact area of
4 2
AR = 9.910 m . Find the force and the pressure that each tire applies to the ground.

70

71

Concepts&CalculationsExample18.
The Buoyant Force

72

A father (weight W = 830 N) and his daughter (weight W = 340 N) are spending the day at the lake. They
are each sitting on a beach ball that is just submerged beneath the water. Ignoring the weight of the air
within the balls and the parts of their legs that are underwater, find the radius of each ball.

73

74

Conceptual Question 19
REASONING AND SOLUTION Consider a stream of water that falls from a faucet. According to the equation of continuity,

Av
stream). As the water falls, it is accelerated due to gravity; therefore, the speed of the water increases as it falls. Since the
the mass flow rate

must be the same at every point along the stream (

= water density, A = of the stream, v = speed of

density of water is uniform throughout the stream, when v increases, the cross-sectional area A of the stream must decrease in
order to maintain a constant mass flow rate. Therefore, the cross-sectional area of the stream becomes smaller as the water
falls.

If the water is shot upward, as it is in a fountain, the velocity of the stream is upward, while the acceleration due to gravity
is directed downward. Therefore, the speed of the stream decreases as the stream rises. Since v decreases, the cross-sectional
area A must increase in order to maintain a constant mass flow rate
becomes larger as the water is shot upward.

. Therefore, the cross-sectional area of the stream

Av
75

Problem 25
REASONING AND SOLUTION

The pump must generate an upward force to counteract the weight

of the column of water above it. Therefore, F = mg = (

P = F/A =

hA)g. The required pressure is then

3
3
2

*
gh = (1.00 10 kg/m )(9.80 m/s )(71 m)

7.0 105 Pa
76

Problem 48
REASONING AND SOLUTION Only the weight of the block compresses the spring. Applying Hooke's
law gives W = kx. The spring is stretched by the buoyant force acting on the block minus the weight of
the block. Hooke's law again gives FB W = 2kx. Eliminating kx gives FB = 3W. Now FB =
that the volume of the block is

3
3
2 3
V = 3M / w = 3(8.00 kg)/(1.00 * 10 kg/m ) = 2.40 * 10 m

3
3 3
Vw = M/ b = (8.00 kg)/(840 kg/m ) = 9.52 * 10 m

V Vw = 1.45*10

-2

3
m

100(1.45* 10

2
)/(2.40*10 ) =

60.3 %
77

w gV, so

Problem52
REASONING
a. According to Equation 11.10, the volume flow rate Q is equal to the product of the cross-sectional area A of
the artery and the speed v of the blood, Q = Av. Since Q and A are known, we can determine v .

b. Since the volume flow rate Q2 through the constriction is the same as the volume flow rate Q1 in the normal
part of the artery, Q2 = Q1. We can use this relation to find the blood speed in the constricted region.

Solution
a. Since the artery is assumed to have a circular cross-section, its cross-sectional area is A1 =
is the radius. Thus, the speed of the blood is

r12

78

, where r1

v1

Q1
A1

Q1

r12

3.6 106 m3 / s

5.2 10 m

4.2 102 m/s

b. The volume flow rate is the same in the normal and constricted parts of the artery, so Q2 = Q1. Since

Q2 A2v2 ,

the blood speed is v2 = Q2/A2 = Q1/A2. We are given that the radius of the constricted part of
the artery is one-third that of the normal artery, so

r2 13 r1.

constriction is

v2

Q1
A2

Thus, the speed of the blood at the

Q1

r22

Q1

13 r1

3.6 106 m3 / s

1
3

5.2 103 m

79

0.38 m/s

Problem 57
REASONING AND SOLUTION
a. Using Equation 11.12, the form of Bernoulli's equation with y1=y2 , we have

3
1.29
kg/m
2
1
2
2
2

150 Pa
P1 P2 v2 v1
(15
m/s)

0
m/s

2
2

b. The pressure inside the roof is greater than the pressure on the outside. Therefore, there is a net outward
force on the roof. If the wind speed is sufficiently high, some roofs are "blown outward."

80

Problem 60
Reasoning
a. The drawing shows two points,

P1=1 atmosphere
1

v1 = 0 m/s

labeled 1 and 2, in the fluid. Point 1 is at

the top of the water, and point 2 is where
it flows out of the dam at the bottom.
Bernoullis equation, Equation 11.11, can

y1

be used to determine the speed v2 of the

P2=1 atmosphere

water exiting the dam.

v2
y2

81

b. The number of cubic meters per second of water that leaves the dam is the volume flow rate Q.
According to Equation 11.10, the volume flow rate is the product of the cross-sectional area A2 of the
crack and the speed v2 of the water; Q = A2v2

Solutions

a. According to Bernoullis equation, as given in Equation 11.11, we have

P1

1
2

2
v1

gy1 P2

1
2

2
v2
82

gy2

Setting P1 = P2 , v1 = 0 m/s, and solving for v2, we obtain

v2 2 g y1 y2 2 9.80 m/s 2 15.0 m 17.1 m/s

b. The volume flow rate of the water leaving the dam is

Q A2v2 1.30 10 m

17.1 m/s 2.22 10

83

m /s

Problem 77
REASONING The drawing at the
right shows the situation. As discussed
in Conceptual Example 6, the job of the
pump is to draw air out of the pipe that
dips down into the water. The
atmospheric pressure in the well then
pushes the water upward into the pipe.

84

In the drawing, the best the pump can do is to remove all of the air, in which case, the pressure P1 at the
top of the water in the pipe is zero. The pressure P2 at the bottom of the pipe at point A is the same as that
at the point B, namely, it is equal to atmospheric pressure (

), because the two points are at the

same elevation, and point B is open to the atmosphere. Equation

11.4,
5

can be applied to

1.013 10 Pa

obtain the maximum depth h of the well.

P2 P1 gh

SOLUTION Setting

P 0

1 Equation 11.4 for h, we have

Pa, and solving

P1

1.013 10 5 Pa
h

10.3 m
3
3
2
g (1.000 10 kg / m ) (9.80 m / s )
85

Problem87
REASONING AND SOLUTION Let rh represent the inside radius of the hose, and rp the radius of the
plug, as suggested by the figure below.

hose

plug

r
r
h

86

Then, from Equation 11.9, A1v1 = A2v2 , we have

rh2v1 ( rh2 or rp2 )v2

v1
v2

rh2

rp2
2
rh

rp
r

or

rp
rh

According to the problem statement, v2 = 3v1 , or

rp

v1
2
1

0.816
rh
3v1
3
87

v1
v2