Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Programa
16 de Junho (Segunda-feira)
Breve Introduo
Modelagem
Instrumentao
ndices Harmnicos
Normas / Recomendaes
Programa
16 de Junho (Segunda-feira)
Contratos e Seguros
Programa
17 de Junho (Tera-feira)
Breve Introduo
Instrumentao
ndices
Normas / Recomendaes
Programa
17 de Junho (Tera-feira)
14:10 - 15:50 - Distrbios na Tenso
-
Programa
18 de Junho (Quarta-feira)
Programa
18 de Junho (Quarta-feira)
Vision
"Where there is no vision, the people perish"
Proverbs 29:18
Philosophy
No aspect of reality should be viewed in isolation
Strategy
Initiative
Flexible
Reliable
Comprehensive
Cost Effective (Micro and Macro)
PQ Concern
System Monitoring
(Permanent or
Surveys)
Industry
Assessments
Performance Indices
System Studies
(Simulations)
Actual Performance
Expected
Performance
Compare with
Indices
Identify
Responsibility and
Solutions
Implement Solutions
and Assess
Performance
Information , Regulation,
and Industry Interaction
Analysis and Simulation
Tools and Proced.
Education and
Information
Programs
Periodic Reporting
Power Disturbance
Any deviation from the nominal value (or from some selected thresholds
based on load tolerance) of the input ac power characteristics.
When monitoring electric power, with many devices, thresholds are
established to define what constitutes a power disturbance. Often, these
thresholds are determined by the type of problem that is occurring. For
example, if a certain piece of equipment is failing, device specific thresholds
will be used (i.e. voltage limitations and noise limitations from the
manufacturer) to establish the definition of a power disturbance.
Power Quality
Power Quality
Power Quality
Utility
Services
Wafer
Processing
Systems
Infrastructure
Equipment
Utility Supplied
Power
Process
Equipment
Facilities
Electrical
Distribution
System
Support
Equipment
Power Monitoring
and Conditioning
Power Monitoring
and Conditioning
Ride-Through
Techniques
Ride-Through
Techniques
Overheating Transformers
Nuisance Tripping
Data Corruption
Equipment/Hardware Failure
Problem Definition
When do the problems occur? (time of day, day of week, particular system operation, etc.)
How long have problems occurred?
Coincident problems occurring at the same time? (lights flicker, motors slow down, etc.)
Possible problem sources at site? (arc welders, air conditioning, copy machines, etc.)
Existing protection for equipment? (surge suppressor, isolation transformer, etc.)
Has protection equipment helped the problems? (getting better, no change, getting worse, etc.)
Has the wiring and grounding of the building been checked? (missing connections, improper
connections, poor quality connections - high impedance, etc.)
Has the quality of the supplied AC voltage been checked? (use True RMS meters)
Management
Technical
Standards
Weak Link
EMO Circuit:
Pilot Relay (33%) and Main Contactor
(14%)
DC Power Supplies:
PC (7%), Contoller (7%), I/O (5%)
3 Phase Power Supplies:
Magnetron (5%), RF (5%), Ion (2%)
Overall
Percentage
47%
19%
12%
Vacuum Pumps
12%
Turbo Pumps
7%
AC Inverter Drives
2%
110%
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
10
100
Duration (cycles)
CBEMA CURVE
1000
<>
Steady
State
Continuity
Voltage Regulation
XXX
Frequency
Variation
XXX
Flicker
XXX
Unbalance
XXX
Harmonics
XXX
Disturbance
Phenomena
Indices and
compatibility levels
XXX
DEC, FEC
-5% <Vn< +5%
XXX
Voltage Sags
XXX
PstD95%< 1.0
PltS95% < 0.8
V2/V1 < 2.0%
CP95%
THD < 3.0%
CP95%
SARFI70
Transients
XXX
PQ $
Scrap
Restart costs
Labor
PQ Level
PowerQuality ( A B C )dPd $
A - Electric parameters
B - Economic Parameters
C - Structure of the Sector
Costs Cost
Costs Cost
Investiment in PQuality
Legal
Types of Disturbance
Impulses
Distortions, etc.
Level of Quality
Filtering,
Power Conditioners, Motor-generator, etc.,
Costs Cost
Costs Cost
Market Effects
Return on Investiment
New Customers
Reduced Losses
Improved Efficiency
Cost of Mitigation
Option 1
Costs Cost
Option 2
Financial Analysis
Net Benefit
Payback
Option 1
Option 2
Costs Cost
Benefit Cost
Distuurbing Customer
Benefit Cost
Utility
Cost
Cost
Cost
Quality
Quality
Invst
Invst
Payback
Quality
Invst
Payback
Payback
Deregulation will not mean the end of power quality evaluations as an important
function within the electric utility industry. On the contrary, power quality is only
increasing in importance as competition becomes the standard and utilities look for new
ways to service their customer base.
TL
SVC
TL
Substation
FACTS
DL
Excitation
DL
Alternate Sources
Home Automation
UPS
Motor Drives
Load
1
Load
2
Customer B
Load
3
Load
1
Load
2
Customer A
Load
3
Va
lue
Dim
en
sio
ns
Environmental
Maintainability
Availability
Safety
Efficiency
Reliability
Performance
Price
Power Quality
Energy
INPUTS
Power
Processing
Generation
Delivery
Conversion
Central
Station
T&D
AC-AC
Supplies
Motion
SMES
Batteries
FACTS
SMES
PQ Parks
UPS
Appliances
User
Communication
OUTPUTS
Light / Motion
Breve Introduo
Sensitivity Analysis
Breve Introduo
Breve Introduo
Modelagem (Solution)
Harmonic Power Flow Solutions:
In this analysis, the harmonic sources are also represented as current sources.
However, their magnitudes and phases are updated using an iterative scheme
based on detailed (voltage-dependent) harmonic source models. Inter-phase
coupling of the harmonic-sources can be modeled with good accuracy. The
harmonic iteration scheme solves the network one frequency at a time. The
calculated nodal voltages are then used to update the current source model. In
theory, simultaneous solutions of all harmonic orders like those used in the
HARMFLO program can also be developed for the multiphase analysis, but the
algorithm would be extremely complex.
Breve Introduo
Modelagem (Solution)
Harmonic Power Flow Solutions:
In this analysis, the harmonic sources are also represented as current sources.
However, their magnitudes and phases are updated using an iterative scheme
based on detailed (voltage-dependent) harmonic source models. Inter-phase
coupling of the harmonic-sources can be modeled with good accuracy. The
harmonic iteration scheme solves the network one frequency at a time. The
calculated nodal voltages are then used to update the current source model. In
theory, simultaneous solutions of all harmonic orders like those used in the
HARMFLO program can also be developed for the multiphase analysis, but the
algorithm would be extremely complex.
THD
V
THD
1.2%V
0.8%
0.4%
An Inevitable Reality
0.0%
2/2
2/3
2/4
2/5
2/6
2/7
2/8
The causes of variations are the continuous changes in system configurations, linear
load demands and operating modes of non linear loads
Harmonic Indices
Probability Functions
Statistical measures
Summation Laws
Harmonic Impedances
Time-dependent Limits
The variations
generally have a
random character
and the only way one
can describe the
behavior of such
characteristics is in
statistical terms
Im(V5)
Re(V5)
Re(V23)
fX
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-4
-3
-2
-1
Breve Introduo
Aspectos Probabilsticos - Time-Varying Nature of Harmonics
Time ranges involved (hours, day, etc.)
f*V5 4.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V 5 V6%
V5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
V6%V5
V5
x0.95
= 0.70 = 0.27
x0.95
= 0.27 = 0.16
I h k hjI hj
j
U h h U hjh
j
h = summation exponent
dependent on harmonic order
TH
DV
1.2%
0.8%
Equipment
0.4%
0.0%
2/2
2/3
2/4
2/5
2/6
2/7
2/8
THDV
1.2%
0.8%
0.4%
0.0%
2/2
2/3
2/4
2/5
2/6
2/7
2/8
5 0
F re q u e n c y
4 5
10 0.0 0%
S ite 1 0 9 2 T H D
H i s to g r a m
J une 1 9 - J un e 26, 19 92
4 0
3 5
3 0
C o un t = 3 0 5
M inim um
=
0. 73 9
M a x im u m
=
1 .9 49
R a n ge
= 1 .2 1 1
M e an
=
1.4 0 6
M e dia n =
1 .48 9
S t a n d a rd
D e vi a t i o n =
0.3 18
S t a n d a rd
E rr o r =
0.0 1 8 2
V a ri a n c e =
0. 1 01
S k ewnes s
= -0 .5 21
K u rt o s i s
=
-0 . 7 7 7
90 .00 %
80 .00 %
70 .00 %
60 .00 %
2 5
50 .00 %
2 0
40 .00 %
1 5
30 .00 %
1 0
20 .00 %
10 .00 %
0.0 0%
0 .7
0.8
0.9
1 .1
1.2
THD
1 .3
1.4
B in s
1.5
1.6
(% )
Duration of
Disturbance
a1 sec < T < b1 sec
B x Continuous Limits
C x Continuous Limits
1.7
1.8
1.9
Drawing of cumulative distribution (Ttotal) and the maximum duration and maximum duration of
individual burst (Tmaximum) for a harmonic measurement. The curve also includes a conceptual limit
for short term harmonic levels.
Breve Introduo
Monitorao and Instrumentao
Monitoring Program Components
Power quality and/or energy demand monitors
Data storage
Download computers
Web or company Intranet server
Breve Introduo
Monitorao and Instrumentao
Why monitor power systems?
Benchmark system performance levels (understand power
quality that can be expected, Allows option for expanded
power quality services)
Reliability reporting (reliability defined based on customer
impacts)
Prioritize system investments
Information service for customers
Identify and solve problems
Improve system operations and reliability
Breve Introduo
Example of System
Monitoring Concept
Distribution
Monitorao
and Instrumentao
Substation
Transmission
Customer
Monitoring
System
Substation
Monitoring
System
Customer
Monitoring
System
Data Collection
Power Quality/
Energy
Information Service
Internet/
World Wide Web
Data Collection
Local Network
Monitoring
Database
Database Management/
Local Data Analysis
Corporate
Intranet
Power Quality/
Reliability
Performance and
Data Analysis
time
Fault location
Capacitor bank performance assessment
Voltage regulator performance assessment
DG performance assessment
Cable fault identifier
Arrester failure identifier
Transformer loading assessment
This is where the real financial return for
system monitoring comes in
400
100
200
80
60
Volt a ge ( V)
V
o
lta
g
e(%
)
600
-200
40
-400
20
-600
0
0.00
0.02
0.04
Time ( s)
0.06
0.08
6
Harmonic Component
10
Breve Introduo
Monitorao and Instrumentao
Current
Power
Instantaneous Current
Current Spectrum
Peak Current
RMS Current
Harmonic RMS Current
Total Harmonic Dist (THD)
Total Demand Dist (TDD)
Even Harmonic Distortion
Odd Harmonic Distortion
Crest Factor
Form Factor
Arithmetic Sum
Time Weighted Product
U k Uref k
RTL k max 0,
Uref k
8
8
6
RT Lk
RT Lk
2
0
4
2
2
2
8
k
10
12
14
13
0.05
0.1
Uk
.1
HDD
50
RTL k
k 2
Exponent = 2 or 4 ?
k = 50 or less ?
Normal
Levels
Caution
Possible
Problems
Severe
Distortions
Dangerous
Levels
0
a
RTL
Below
Below
Normal
Normal
Equipment Malfunction
Caution
Normal Over
Heating
Possible Problems
c
d
Very
Hot
Imminent Problems
1
e
Normal
Levels
0
Caution
Possible
Problems
Severe
Distortions
Dangerous
Levels
RTL
Example 1
U k
0.001
0.015
0.001
0.03
0.001
0.015
0.001
0.009
0.001
0.02
0.001
0.015
Uref k
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
2
2
3 0.5
4
RTL 7 0.5
8
10
0.03
0.04
Uk
Urefk
0.02
THDD max 0
3
110
( VTHD Vthd )
Vthd
11
12
13 0.5
8
k
10
12
14
13
Example 1
13
VHDD
RTLk
VTHD
13
VHDD 2.398
VTHD 4.541
THDD max 0
THDD 0
( VTHD Vthd )
Vthd
Vthd=5%
U k
100
Example 2
U k
0.001
0.01
0.001
0.0
0.001
0.01
0.001
0.01
0.001
0.01
0.001
0.01
Uref k
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
2
2
RTL 7
10
11
12
13
0.02
Uk
Urefk
0.01
0 0
2
2
8
k
10
12
14
13
Example 2
13
VHDD
RTLk
VTHD
13
VHDD 0
VTHD 2.249
THDD max 0
( VTHD Vthd )
Vthd
THDD 0
Vthd=5%
U k
100
Example 3
U k
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.02
0.001
0.02
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.05
0.001
0.04
Uref k
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
2
2
RTL 7
10
11
12
13
0.05
0.04
Uk
Urefk 0.02
110
2
2
8
k
10
12
14
13
Example 3
13
VHDD
RTLk
13
VTHD
VHDD 5.196
U k
100
VTHD 7.006
THDD max 0
( VTHD Vthd )
Vthd
THDD 0.401
Vthd=5%
Uref k
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Example 4
2
3
RTL 10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
0.025
0.02
Uk
Urefk 0.01
0.01
10
15
2
n
VHDD
20
25
RTLk
VHDD 0
29
VTHD
U k
100
VTHD 5.292
THDD max 0
( VTHD Vthd )
Vthd
30
THDD 0.058
Vthd 5
Diagnosing
Problems
Possible
If THDD = 0
If HDD = 0
No
If THDD = 0
If HDD > 0
Yes
If THDD > 0
If HDD = 0
If THDD > 0
Possible
Current Distortion
Limits (in % of IL) for
General Transmission
Systems (>161,000 V)
Voltage
Distortion Limits
(in % of V1)
ndices Harmnicos
17 de junho (Tera-feira)
Breve Introduo
Instrumentao
ndices
Normas / Recomendaes
Faults on Own
Circuit
23%
Faults on Parallel
Circuits
46%
Example of the breakdown of voltage sag performance at an end user location illustrating the
relative causes of voltage sags between the transmission system and the distribution system.
What is SARFI?
SARFI is an acronym for System Average RMS Variation Frequency Index. It
is a power quality index that provides a count or rate of voltage sags, swells,
and/or interruptions for a system. The size of the system is scalable: it can be
defined as a single monitoring location, a single customer service, a feeder, a
substation, groups of substations, or for an entire power delivery system.
There are two types of SARFI indices. SARFIx and SARFICURVE.
http://www.pqview.com/indices/sarfi.pdf
220-230 kV
110-138 kV
69 kV
6
8
Events per 100 mile / Year
10
12
14
70
60
Distribution
Transmission
50
40
30
20
10
0
Interruptions
< 50%
< 60%
< 70%
Minimum Sag Voltage
< 80%
< 90%
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
90 to 100
3 0 to 6 0 c yc
2 0 to 3 0 c yc
1 0 to 2 0 c yc
6 to 1 0 c yc
5 c yc
4 c yc
3 c yc
2 c yc
1 c yc
C ount
60 to 70
30 to 40
0 to 10
Magnitude
Duration
Example of characterizing voltage sag performance using a three dimensional chart showing the count
of events with magnitude and duration.
Example of characterizing voltage sag events by summarizing magnitude and duration of events with
respect to equipment sensitivity (ITIC curve).
Computer Model
25
20
Eve nts 1 5
Per
Year 1 0
5
0
3 8 kV
1 1 0 kV
2 2 0 kV
Tota l
Fault Location
Minimum Voltage
Event Duration
Jul-01-1997 09:48:52
73%
9 cycles
Jul-01-1997 09:50:16
73%
9 cycles
Jul-07-1997 14:20:12
0%
82 cycles
Jul-10-1997 15:55:23
13%
100 cycles
Jul-21-1997 09:48:52
0%
2.6 seconds
Aug-08-1997 07:35:02
49%
34 cycles
Sep-02-1997 08:30:28
0%
41 seconds
Sep-08-1997 10:30:40
59%
40 cyc
Count
SARFI90
2.61
SARFI70
1.96
SARFI50
1.63
SARFI10
0.98
Breve Introduo
Instrumentao
SARFI-70
SARFI-80
SARFI-90
7.8
10.6
13.2
17.7
44.0
11.0
47.0
27.3
NA
NA
78.0
49.7
103.1
34.6
153.0
Brazilian System
?
Discuss
Comparison of UI Substation's SARFI 70 performance of the last 12 months vs. their 3 year average
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Example of comparing voltage sag performance at different substations. The chart shows the breakdown of
events caused by transmission faults vs. distribution faults and compares the three year average performance
with the last years performance for each substation.
Weighting
Filters
Smoothing
RMS Meter
(optional)
Statistical
evaluation
of
flicker level
P3 S = (P2.2 + P3 + P4)/3
P1 S = (P0,7 + P1 + P1,5)/3
The error of the measuring method should remain always under 5%.
In practice, tests have confirmed that the above method gives
correct results for different network disturbances. The method was
developed so that people feel flicker disturbing for
Pst = 1.
Limit
PstD95%
PltS95%
Global - Inferior
1 pu / FT
0,8 pu /FT
Global - Superior
2 pu /FT
1,6 pu / FT
FT = 0,65
FT = 0,80
Bus Voltage 69 kV
FT = 1,00
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Figure illustrates the procedure for performing the assessment using the
statistical values over a one week period.
Responsibilities
The concept of ranges for the flicker limits has been suggested rather than fixed limits. Flicker
impacts are very dependent on system characteristics, load characteristics, and customer
characteristics. Therefore, adjusting the flicker limits for specific circumstances is attractive.
However, this also introduces ambiguity to the evaluation procedure.
In general, three different flicker ranges would be defined:
1.
2.
1.0 < PstD95% < 2.0 Precarious flicker levels that require system-dependent
evaluation. These sites may be acceptable with existing flicker levels if the attenuation factors
combined with local flicker sources at the MV levels are resulting in MV flicker levels that are
acceptable for customers. The cost of resolving the flicker problem should also be taken into
account.
3.
The system-dependent evaluation would consider whether or not there are actual complaints,
system topology (different transfer functions), the costs of reducing the flicker levels,
allowance for local flicker generation, and the potential impacts.
Issues
Are the flicker levels proposed acceptable?
The existing goals establish a limit for Pst95% at the actual PCC in the range of 1.0 to 2.0.
The requirements of a specific system will depend on transfer ratios to lower voltages and
other characteristics of the system.
What about rapid voltage (step) changes? Are they a different type of evaluation?
Rapid voltage changes occur during the connection or disconnection of loads or other
devices (e.g. capacitors or reactors) to the power system. They are a different type of
problem than an arc furnace or other time-varying load. Typical rapid voltage changes do
not exceed a magnitude of + 5 % or - 5 % of the nominal or declared voltage at LV or MV
levels. Lower limits on individual step changes are required for switching events on the
transmission system. A reasonable limit for a single step change caused by a switching
event at the HV level would be 3%. This limit is used by some transmission companies as
a criteria for sizing capacitor bank steps on the transmission system.
Issues
What are the power quality concerns of flicker? If everyone uses compact florescent lights,
will it be a concern?
The only power quality phenomena that has been associated with flicker is the affect on lamp
voltage. Severe flicker levels have also caused operation of UPS systems, resulting in
depleting the UPS batteries. However, lamp flicker has always been the limiting criteria for
flicker. Flicker then is the effect produced on the visual human perception by a changing
emission of light by lamps subjected to fluctuations of their supply voltage.
Waveform information in combination with extended rms vs. time recording for voltage
sags and interruptions.
Summarize of Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
18 de junho (Quarta-feira)
08:30 - 10:10 Gerenciamento da Qualidade de Energia Eltrica
-
Table 2.
What Unfavorable Effect Would a "Brown-Out" Have on Production?
Major effect
(%)
33.7
Moderate effect
(%)
33.7
Little effect
(%)
18.8
No effect
(%)
7.9
No answer
(%)
5.9
Yield of product
36.6
22.8
17.8
13.9
8.9
Maintenance of
equipment
Consumables used in
process
Cost of production
33.7
27.7
24.8
5.0
8.9
17.8
25.7
30.7
17.8
7.9
38.6
28.7
19.8
5.0
7.9
Throughput of product
Table 3.
What Unfavorable Effect Would Power Voltage Spikes, Surges or Noise Have on Production?
Major effect
Moderate effect
Little effect
No effect
No
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
answer
Throughput of product
30.7
32.7
20.8
7.9
7.9
Yield of product
31.7
31.7
16.8
10.9
8.9
Maintenance of
equipment
Consumables used in
34.7
23.8
27.7
5.9
7.9
18.8
20.8
35.6
16.8
7.9
27.7
36.6
17.8
5.9
11.9
process
Cost of production
Power Quality Contracts in a Restructured Competitive Electricity Industry, Barry W. Kennedy Bonneville Power, Administration, Portland,
OR 97209, Mark McGranaghan Electrotek Concepts, Knoxville, TN 37923 - http://www.dranetz-bmi.com/pdf/contracts.pdf
Switching capacitor banks creates transient voltages that can impact distribution systems and
end use customers due to magnification or sensitive loads. This problem was encountered in
England after deregulation and there was no definition of responsibility for controlling the
transient voltages. The transmission company declared that the transient voltages were not
excessive and the distribution companies that served the customers declared that the transients
causing the problem were being created on the transmission system. With integrated utilities
in the United States, these problems are usually solved with switching control in the
transmission capacitor banks (synchronous closing or closing resistors). Transients from
capacitor switching should be limited to very low levels (e.g. less than 1.1 pu) at this point
due to their potential for causing problems at lower voltages.
Voltage Sags and Interruptions
Expected voltage sag and interruption performance at the point of common coupling should
be defined. It is important to recognize that voltage sags can be caused by faults on the
transmission system or distribution system. Contracts that include voltage sag limits between
utilities and large customers supplied from the transmission system have already been
implemented by Detroit Edison, etc, with the large automotive manufacturing companies.
Payments or rate structures that provide compensation for voltage sag and interruption
performance outside of the specified levels should be defined.
Transient Voltages.
Capacitor switching transients could be important due to their impact on sensitive loads.
The distribution system supplier should control the capacitor switching transient
magnitudes but the customer should be responsible for avoiding magnification problems
created by power factor correction capacitors within the facility. Basic requirements and
responsibilities for surge suppression should also be defined to avoid problems with high
frequency transients associated with lightning.
Voltage Sags and Interruptions
The contract should define expected voltage sag and interruption performance. This is an
area where enhanced performance options may be offered in cases where it may be more
economical to improve performance through modifications or power conditioning
equipment applied at the distribution system level.
Conclusions
PQ Will continue to grow in importance as the electric sector operates within a
truly free economy.
Utilities, customers and manufacturers will have to cooperate to establish a stable
model for the power quality industry sector
Differentiated Premium Power will Become a reality
Reliability and Quality will become as important as Price
An integrated Approach Is Essential
Vision, Philosophy/Strategy and Initiative
The electric sector needs to monitor closely the PQ levels and maintain investment
to keep compatible power quality over the entire grid.