Topic 1 Basic Molecules of Cells

Chapter 3 The Molecules of Cells

PowerPoint Lectures for

Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition

Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko

Learning outcomes:
1. Explain how a cell can make a variety of large
molecules from a small set of molecules
2. Define monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides and explain their functions
3. Define lipids, phospholipids, and steroids and
explain their functions
4. Describe the chemical structure of proteins and
their importance to cells
5. Describe the chemical structure of nucleic acids
and how they relate to inheritance
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Rearrange these in
the correct order:

INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS

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3.1 Lifes molecular diversity is based on the

properties of carbon
Carbon-based molecules are called
_________________________
Methane (CH4) is one of the simplest organic
compounds.
Four covalent bonds link four hydrogen atoms to the
carbon atom.
Each of the four lines in the formula for methane
represents a pair of shared electrons.

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3.1 Lifes molecular diversity is based on

the properties of carbon
Compound composed of only carbon and hydrogen
are called__________________.
Carbon, with attached hydrogens, can bond
together in chains of various lengths.
By sharing electrons, carbon can
bond to four other atoms and
branch in up to four directions.

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Structural
formula

Ball-and-stick
model

Space-filling
model

The four single bonds of carbon point to the corners of a tetrahedron.

Three representatives of methane (CH4)

3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help

determine the properties of organic
compounds
An organic compound has unique properties that
depend upon the
size and shape of the molecule and
groups of atoms (functional groups) attached to it.

A ________________affects a biological
molecules function in a characteristic way.
Compounds containing functional groups are
____________ (water-loving)(except methyl group)
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3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help

determine the properties of organic
compounds
______________ consists of a hydrogen bonded to
an oxygen,
_______________a carbon linked by a double bond
to an oxygen atom,
_______________consists of a carbon doublebonded to both an oxygen and a hydroxyl group,
_______________composed of a nitrogen bonded to
two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton, and
_______________consists of a phosphorus atom
bonded to four oxygen atoms.
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3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help

determine the properties of organic
compounds
Eg. of similar compounds that differ only in
functional groups is sex hormones.
Male and female sex hormones differ only in functional
groups.
The differences cause varied molecular actions.
The result is distinguishable features of males and
females.

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Testosterone

Estradiol

Differences in the chemical groups of sex hormones

3.3 Cells make a huge number of large

molecules from a small set of small
molecules
4 classes of molecules important to organisms:
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
nucleic acids

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3.3 Cells make a huge number of large

molecules from a small set of small
molecules
4 classes of biological molecules contain very large
molecules.
called _________________ because of their large size.
called _______________ because they are made from
identical building blocks strung together.
building blocks of polymers = ______________

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3.3 Cells make a huge number of large

molecules from a small set of small
molecules
Monomers are linked together to form polymers through
________________________
Polymers are broken apart by _______________
These biological reactions are mediated by _______________

Dehydration

Short polymer

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Monomer

Hydrolysis

Longer polymer

3.3 Cells make a huge number of large

molecules from a small set of small
molecules
A cell makes a large number of polymers from a
small group of monomers. For example,
proteins are made from only 20 different amino acids
and
DNA is built from kinds of nucleotides.

The monomers used to make polymers are

universal.

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Unlinked
monomer

Short polymer

Dehydration reaction
forms a new bond

Longer polymer
Dehydration reaction building a polymer chain

Hydrolysis
breaks a bond

Hydrolysis breaking down a polymer

A
B
dehydration
synthesis

hydrolysis

Which picture
represents
Is water
removed or
added?
Are polymers or
monomers
formed?

20

CARBOHYDRATES

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Introduction: Got Lactose?

Most of the worlds
population cannot
digest milk-based foods
They are lactose
intolerant, because they
lack the enzyme lactase

This illustrates the

importance of biological
molecules, such as
lactase, to functioning
living organisms
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3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest

carbohydrates
________________ range from small sugar
molecules (monomers) to large polysaccharides.
Sugar monomers are ________________, such as
those found in honey. Eg. Glucose and fructose
Monosaccharides can be hooked together to form
polysaccharides.

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Bees with honey, a mixture of two monosaccharides (glucose & fructose)

3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest

carbohydrates
Carbon skeletons of monosaccharides vary in
length.
Glucose and fructose = 6 carbons long.
Others have three to seven carbon atoms.

Monosaccharides are
the main fuels for cellular work
used as raw materials to manufacture other organic
molecules.

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Glucose
(an ______________)

Fructose
(a _____________)

6
5

Structural
formula

Abbreviated
structure

Three representations of ring form of glucose.

Simplified
structure

3.5 Two monosaccharides are linked to

form a disaccharide
Two monosaccharides (monomers) can bond to
form a ______________ in a dehydration reaction.
The disaccharide sucrose is formed by combining
a glucose monomer and
a fructose monomer.

The disaccharide maltose is formed from two

glucose monomers.

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Glucose

Glucose

Maltose
Disaccharide formation by a dehydration reaction

Carbohydrates

Which is a (1) monosaccharide?

(2) disaccharide?

3.6 CONNECTION: What is high-fructose

corn syrup, and is it to blame for
obesity?
Sodas or fruit drinks probably contain high-fructose
corn syrup (HFCS).
Fructose is sweeter than glucose.
To make HFCS, glucose atoms are rearranged to
make the glucose isomer, fructose.

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3.6 CONNECTION: What is high-fructose

corn syrup, and is it to blame for
obesity?
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is
used to sweeten beverages
may be associated with weight gain.

Good health is promoted by

a diverse diet of proteins, fats,
vitamins, minerals, and complex
carbohydrates
exercise.
High-fructose cron syrup (HFCS), a main
ingredient of soft drinks and processed foods
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3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar

units
_________________ are
macromolecules
polymers composed of thousands of monosaccharides.

Polysaccharides may function as

storage molecules or
structural compounds.

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3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar

units
_______________is
composed of glucose monomers
used by plants for energy storage.

_______________ is
composed of glucose monomers
used by animals for energy storage.

_____________
polymer of glucose
forms plant cell walls.

_____________ is
used by insects and crustaceans to build an exoskeleton.
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Starch granules
in potato tuber cells

Glycogen granules
in muscle
tissue

Cellulose microfibrils
in a plant cell wall

Starch

Glucose
monomer
Glycogen

Cellulose
Hydrogen bonds

Cellulose
molecules

Polysaccharides

3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units

Polysaccharides are ___________ (water-loving).
Eg. Bath towels are
often made of cotton, which is mostly cellulose
water absorbent.

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Chloroplast

Mitochondria Glycogen granules

Starch

0.5 m
1 m

Glycogen

Amylose
Amylopectin

(a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide

(b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

What basic shape do these polymers share?

LIPIDS

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3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energystorage molecules

________________
are water insoluble (______________, or water-fearing)
compounds
are important in long-term energy storage
contain twice as much energy as a polysaccharide
consist mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms linked by
nonpolar covalent bonds.

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3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energystorage molecules

3 types of lipids:
fats
phospholipids
steroids

_____________ is a large lipid made from one

glycerol and three fatty acids.
A fatty acid link to glycerol by dehydration reaction.
Fats often called triglycerides because of their structure.

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Glycerol

Fatty acid

A dehydration reaction linking a fatty acid

to glycerol.

Glycerol

Fatty acids

A fat molecule (trigylceride) consisting of 3

fatty acids linked to glycerol

 What is the technical name for fat?

What are the components of fats?

Why is fat a good source of energy?

Fatty acid
(palmitic acid)
Glycerol

(a) What is the type of reaction above?

3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energystorage molecules

Some fatty acids contain double bonds, forming
______________________that
have one fewer hydrogen atom on each carbon of the
double bond
cause kinks or bends in the carbon chain
prevent them from packing together tightly and
solidifying at room temperature
Eg. corn and olive oils.

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3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energystorage molecules

Fats with the maximum number of hydrogens =
_______________________.
Eg. animal fats
Hydrogenated vegetable oils are unsaturated fats
that have been converted to saturated fats by
adding hydrogen.
This hydrogenation creates _____________
associated with health risks.

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Structural formula of a
fat molecule

Stearic acid, a fatty acid

(a) Is this fat saturated or unsaturated?

Structural formula of a fat molecule

Oleic acid, a fatty acid

(b) Is this fat saturated or unsaturated?cis double

bond causes
bending.

3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important

lipids with a variety of functions
__________________ are
structurally similar to fats
major component of all cells.

Phospholipids are structurally similar to fats.

Fats contain three fatty acids attached to glycerol.
Phospholipids contain two fatty acids attached to
glycerol.

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Phosphate
group
Glycerol
Hydrophilic heads

Water

Hydrophobic tails

Symbol for phospholipid

Water

Chemical structure of a phospholipid molecule

3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important

lipids with a variety of functions
Phospholipids cluster into a bilayer
of phospholipids to form cell
membrane

Hydrophilic head

The hydrophilic heads are in

contact with water of the
environment and internal part of
the cell.
The hydrophobic tails band in the
center of the bilayer.

Water

Hydrophobic tail

Symbol for
phospholipid
Water

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Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tails
(a) Structural formula

Choline
Phosphate
Glycerol

Two fatty acids and a

phosphate group are
attached to glycerol
The two fatty acid tails
are hydrophobic, but the
phosphate group and its
attachments form a
hydrophilic head

Fatty acids
Hydrophilic
head
Hydrophobic
tails
(b) Space-filling model

(c) Phospholipid symbol

Hydrophilic
heads

Water

Hydrophobic
tails
Water

When phospholipids are

added to water, they selfassemble into a bilayer, with
the hydrophobic tails
pointing toward the interior
The structure of
phospholipids results in a
bilayer arrangement found in
cell membranes

WATER

What is X?

WATER

What is Y?

Why are X & Y positioned as

shown?

3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are

important lipids with a variety of
functions

______________are lipids in which the carbon

skeleton contains four fused rings.
______________ is a
common component in animal cell membranes
starting material for making steroids, including sex
hormones.

Cholesterol, a steroid.
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3.10 CONNECTION: Anabolic steroids pose

health risks
______________________
are synthetic variants of testosterone
can cause a buildup of muscle and bone
mass
are often prescribed to treat general
anemia and some diseases that destroy
body muscle
abused by some athletes with serious
consequences, including violent mood
swings, depression ,liver damage,
cancer, high cholesterol, and high blood
pressure.

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PROTEINS

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3.11 Proteins are made from amino acids

linked by peptide bonds
Proteins are polymers from various combination of 20 amino
acid monomers.
_________________ have an amino group and a carboxyl
group (which makes it an acid).
Also bonded to the central carbon is
a hydrogen atom
a chemical group symbolized by R
which determines the specific
properties of amino acids

Amino
group

Carboxyl
group

General structure of an amino acid

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 carbon

X
What is this molecule called?
What groups are X & Y?

 What shape are most proteins?

What is the name given to a protein polymer?

What is a protein monomer called?

3.11 Proteins are made from amino acids

linked by peptide bonds
Amino acids are classified as either hydrophobic or
hydrophilic.
Hydrophobic

Leucine (Leu)

Hydrophilic

Serine (Ser)

Aspartic acid (Asp)

Examples of amino acids with hydrophobic and hydrophilic R groups

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3.11 Proteins are made from amino acids

linked by peptide bonds
Amino acid monomers are linked together
in a dehydration reaction
joining carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino
group of the next amino acid to form a _____________.

Additional amino acids can be added by the same

process to create a chain of amino acids called a
________________.

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Carboxyl
group

Amino acid

Amino
group

Peptide
bond
Dehydration
reaction

Amino acid

Peptide bond formation

Dipeptide

Fig. 5-18

What type of
reaction is this?

Peptide
bond

What is the
name of bond
W?

(a)

Side chains

Backbone

(b)

Amino end
(N-terminus)

Carboxyl end
(C-terminus)

Which is an
example of a
dipeptide &
tripeptide?

3.12 A proteins specific shape determines

its function
_________________
One of the most important protein
serve as metabolic catalysts and
regulate the chemical reactions within cells.

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3.12 A proteins specific shape determines

its function
Other important proteins include
____________ proteins provide associations between body parts.
____________ proteins are found within muscle.
____________ proteins include antibodies of the immune system.
____________ proteins are best exemplified by hormones and
other chemical messengers.
____________ proteins transmit signals into cells.
____________ proteins carry oxygen.
____________ proteins serve as a source of amino acids for
developing embryos.

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Structural proteins make up hair,

tendons and ligaments; contractile
proteins are found in muscles

3.12 A proteins specific shape determines

its function
A polypeptide chain contains hundreds or
thousands of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
The amino acid sequence causes the polypeptide
to assume a particular shape.
The shape of a protein determines its specific
function.

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Groove

Ribbon model of the

protein lysozyme

Groove

Space-filling model of the

protein lysozyme

3.12 A proteins specific shape determines

its function
If a proteins shape is altered, it can no longer
function.
In the process of _____________, a polypeptide
chain unravels, loses its shape, and loses its
function.
Proteins can be denatured by changes in salt
concentration, pH, or by high heat.

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3.13 A proteins shape depends on four

levels of structure
4 levels of protein structure:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________

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3.13 A proteins shape depends on four

levels of structure
Primary structure of a protein is its unique amino
acid sequence.
The correct amino acid sequence is determined by cells
genetic information.
The slightest change in this sequence may affect
proteins ability to function.
Primary structure

Amino
acid
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Proteins

Pix: Brooker 1e

What bonds are involved in primary structure?

Which parts of two amino acids are involved per bond?

72

3.13 A proteins shape depends on four

levels of structure
Protein secondary structure
results from coiling or folding of
polypeptide.
Coiling results in a helical structure =
alpha helix.
Folding leads to a pleated sheet. Eg.
Spider webs
Coiling and folding are maintained by
hydrogen bonds along the backbone
of the polypeptide chain.
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Secondary structure
Amino
acid

Amino acid

Hydrogen
bond
Beta pleated
sheet
Alpha helix

Polypeptide
chain

Collagen

 What shapes can you see in secondary structure?

What bonds are responsible for producing such

shapes?

Which atoms are involved in such bonds?

76

3.13 A proteins shape depends on four

levels of structure
Three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide =
tertiary structure.
Tertiary structure generally results from interactions
between the R groups of the various amino acids.
Disulfide bridges may further strengthen the proteins
shape.

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Hydrophobic
interactions and
van der Waals
interactions
Polypeptide
backbone
Hydrogen
bond

Disulfide bridge

Ionic bond

Tertiary structure

Transthyretin polypeptide

 How does protein 3D tertiary structure arise?

What types of bonds or interaction produce tertiary

structure?

Which component of an amino acid contribute to

those bonds or interactions that produce tertiary
structure?
80

3.13 A proteins shape depends on four

levels of structure
2 or more polypeptide
chains associate
providing quaternary
structure.

Quaternary structure

Eg. Collagens triple helix

gives great strength to
connective tissue, bone,
tendons, and ligaments.
Transthyretin, with 4
identical polypeptides

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 How many polypeptides are involved?

What type of bonds give rise to Quaternary

Structure?

Are these intra- or inter-polypeptide bonds?

82

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Primary structure
Amino
acids

Amino acids

Secondary structure
Hydrogen
bond
Beta pleated
sheet
Alpha helix

Tertiary structure

Transthyretin
polypeptide

Quaternary structure

Transthyretin, with four

identical polypeptides

What kind of structure or level of protein organization is this?

1
5

H3N
Amino end

10

Amino acid
subunits

15

20

25

Whats the difference between the 2 structures?

Tertiary Structure

Quaternary Structure

Which levels of protein structure are represented below?

Polypeptide
chain

Chains

Iron
Heme
Chains
Hemoglobin
Collagen

NUCLEIC ACIDS

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3.14 DNA and RNA are the two types of

nucleic acids
Genes consist of _______________________, a
type of ________________.
inherited from an organisms parents
provides directions for its own replication
programs a cells activities by directing the synthesis of
proteins

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3.14 DNA and RNA are the two types of

nucleic acids
DNA works through an intermediary,
__________________________ to build proteins directly
DNA is transcribed into RNA.
RNA is translated into proteins.
Gene
DNA
Transcription
RNA
Translation

Nucleic
acids

Protein

Amino acid
The flow of genetic information in the building of a protein
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3.15 Nucleic acids are polymers of

nucleotides
_______ and ______are composed of monomers
called _______________.
Nucleotides have 3 parts:
a five-carbon sugar called ribose in RNA and
deoxyribose in DNA
a phosphate group
a nitrogenous base

A nucleotide, consisting of a phosphate

group, a sugar and a nitrogenous base
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Nitrogenous
base
(adenine)

Phosphate
group
Sugar

3.15 Nucleic acids are polymers of

nucleotides
DNA - adenine (A), thymine (T),cytosine (C), and
guanine (G).
RNA - A, C, and G, but instead of T, it has uracil
(U).
A nucleic acid polymer (polynucleotide ;monomer
nucleotide) formed when phosphate of one
nucleotide bonds to the sugar of next nucleotide
(by dehydration reactions) resulting a repeating
sugar-phosphate backbone with protruding
nitrogenous bases
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Nucleotide

T
C
G
T
Part of a nucleotide

Sugar-phosphate
backbone

3.15 Nucleic acids are polymers of

nucleotides
Two polynucleotide strands wrap
around each other = DNA
_________________.

C
A

Two strands are associated

because particular bases always
hydrogen bond to one another.
A pairs with T, and C pairs with G,
producing ______________.

RNA is usually a single

polynucleotide strand.
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C
C

T
C

G
A

Base
pair

T
A

A
A

DNA double
helix

T
T

5' end
5'C
3'C

Why is the sugar called pentose?

On the diagram on your left, circle a
nucleotide.
Whats the diff between nucleoside
& nucleotide?
Nucleoside
Nitrogenous
base
5'C

Phosphate
group

5'C
3'C

(b) Nucleotide
3' end

(a) Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid

3'C

Sugar
(pentose)

At which sugar C no. is:

phosphate attached?
A base attached?

3.16 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Lactose

tolerance is a recent event in human
evolution
The majority of people
stop producing the enzyme lactase in early childhood
and
do not easily digest the milk sugar lactose.

Lactose tolerance represents a

relatively recent mutation in the human genome and
survival advantage for human cultures with milk and
dairy products available year-round.
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3.16 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Lactose

tolerance is a recent event in human
evolution
Researchers identified three
mutations that keep the
lactase gene permanently
turned on.
The mutations appear to
have occurred
about 7,000 years ago and
at the same time as the
domestication of cattle in
these regions.
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A prehistoric European cave painting of

cattle

Classes of Molecules
and Their Components
Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Lipids

(dont form polymers)

Glycerol

Functions

Examples

Energy for cell,

raw material

a.

b.

Starch, glycogen

Plant cell support

c.

Energy storage

d.

e.

Phospholipids

Hormones

f.

Fatty acid

Components of a fat molecule

Classes of Molecules
and Their Components
Proteins
g.

h.

i.

Amino acid

Nucleic Acids

p.

Functions

Examples

j.

Lactase

k.

Hair, tendons

l.

Muscles

Transport

m.

Communication

Signal proteins

n.

Antibodies

Storage
Receive signals

Egg albumin

Receptor protein

Heredity

r.

s.

DNA and RNA

o.

Nucleotide

q.

You should now be able to:

1. Explain how a cell can make a variety of large
molecules from a small set of molecules
2. Define monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides and explain their functions
3. Define lipids, phospholipids, and steroids and
explain their functions
4. Describe the chemical structure of proteins and
their importance to cells
5. Describe the chemical structure of nucleic acids
and how they relate to inheritance
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