5.

Hill Roads

80 @ 10% = 8 Marks

Topics As Per Syllabus

5.1

Introduction

5.2

Special Consideration in Hill Roads

5.2.1 Alignment of Hill Road Design: General Consideration,

Route Location in Hills, Gradient, Design and Types of Hair
Pin Bends, Different Types of Hill Road Cross-sections
5.3

Special Structures in Hill Roads

5.3.1 Types of Retaining Structures, River Training Structures,

Landslide Stabilization Structures and Gully Control
Structures

1. Introduction
A hill road is usually defined on the basis of terrain.
As per NRS the cross slope may be classified as:

Hill road-one which passes through terrain with cross slope of

25% or more i.e. mountainous or steep.
There are sections along hill road with cross slope less than
25%, esp. when the road follows river route.

Why Hill Road in Nepal?

Nepal area = 140,000 sq. km approx.

% covered with thinly/sparsely populated hills, mountains.

 90% population reside in hilly areas and depends on

agro products.

erways, Railways, Airways Even Not Possible or Very difficu

 Hilly Regions Extremes of Climatic Conditions,

Difficult and Hazardous Terrain, Topography and Vast
High Altitude Areas

 Challenges of Hilly Areas: Floods, Landslides,

Snowfall, etc. Fairly Weathered Roads Possible

 But Hilly Areas Rich: in Natural Resources, Flora and

Fauna Important to launch development Projects
(e.g. Hydropower, etc.), tourism, etc.

 For Transport, Economy, Social Reasons Justify the

Construction of Hill Roads in the Hilly Regions.

ere Tunnels, Viaduct Possible but Not Economical

Why Hill Road in Nepal?

Nepal area = 140,000 sq. km approx.
66% covered with thinly/sparsely populated hills, mountains.
90% population reside in hilly areas and depends on agro products.
Waterways, railways, airways difficult
Hilly Regions Extremes of Climatic Conditions, Difficult and Hazardous
Terrain, Topography and Vast High Altitude Areas
Challenges of Hilly Areas: Floods, Landslides, Snowfall, etc. Fairly Weathered
Roads Possible
But Hilly Areas Rich: in Natural Resources, Flora and Fauna Important to
launch development Projects (e.g. Hydropower, etc.), tourism, etc.
For Transport, Economy, Social Reasons Justify the Construction of Hill
Roads in the Hilly Regions.
Where Tunnels, Viaduct Possible but Not Economical

5.2
Special Consideration in
Hill Roads

5.2.1 Design and Construction Problems of

Hill Roads
Characterized by a highly broken relief with widely differing elevations
and steep slopes, deep gorges and several watercourses
unnecessarily increase in road length
Complex geology different rock bed geology differs from place to
place assessment for road foundation is not easy
Environmental impact removal of vegetation etc. stable slope may
change to unstable slope after road construction
Great Variation in hydrological condition [ground water condition] vary
from place to place may lead to damages after road construction
New earth fill for road embankment may overload the relatively weak
underlying soil layer on hill slope may trigger new and recurrent
slides

1. Characterized by a highly broken relief with Widely

Differing Elevations and Steep Slopes, Deep Gorges
and Several Watercourses Unnecessarily increase
in
Road
Length

2. Complex Geology Different Rock Bed Geology differs from

place to place Assessment for road foundation is not easy

3. Environmental impact removal of vegetation etc.

stable slope may change to unstable slope after road
construction

4. Great Variation in hydrological condition vary from

place to place landslides, soil erosion may lead to
damages after road construction

5. New earth fill for road embankment may overload the

relatively weak underlying soil layer on hill slope may
trigger new and recurrent slides

6. Requires installation of various types of special

various road structures cost may rise upto 50 - 60% of
total construction

7. Steep slopes high speed of surface runoff

provision of erosion protection works

8. Construction along relatively small approach

stretches different construction technology may be
needed

9. Need of special safety precaution during hill road

construction

10. Frequent blasting

11. Design of hairpin bends to get heights

5.2.1 Design and Construction Problems of

Hill Roads
1. Characterized by a highly broken relief with widely differing elevations
and steep slopes, deep gorges and several watercourses
unnecessarily increase in road length
2. Complex geology different rock bed geology differs from place to
place assessment for road foundation is not easy
3. Environmental impact removal of vegetation etc. stable slope
may change to unstable slope after road construction
4. Great Variation in hydrological condition [ground water condition] vary
from place to place may lead to damages after road construction
5. New earth fill for road embankment may overload the relatively weak
underlying soil layer on hill slope may trigger new and recurrent slides

6. Requires installation of various types of special various road

structures cost may rise upto 50 - 60% of total construction
7. Steep slopes high speed of surface runoff provision of erosion
protection works
8. Construction along relatively small approach stretches different
construction technology may be needed
9. Need of special safety precaution during hill road construction
10. Variations of climatic conditions precipitation [rain and snow] ,
velocity of wind etc. need considerations
11. Frequent blasting
12. Design of hairpin bends to get heights


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5.2.2

Special Consideration in Hill Roads

1. Selection of Road Alignment

2. Special Geometric Standards (Gradient and Hari Pin Bends)
3. Cross-section Design
4. Design of Drainage Structures (Special Structures may
Require)
5. Stability of Slopes

1. Selection of Road Alignment

Alignment through hilly areas is slightly different from aligning through a
flat terrain.
For the purpose of efficient and safe operation of vehicles through a hilly
terrain special care should be taken while aligning the highway.
Aim of Hill Roads: Alignment should be - short, easy, economical & safe,
line of communication between the obligatory points considering the
physical features of the region and traffic needs as well as least
disturbance to eco-system
Ideal Road Alignment: one which will cause the least overall transportation
cost taking into account the costs of construction, maintenance and
recurring cost of vehicle operation.

 Requirement of hill roads: decided based on: Administrative,

Developmental, Strategic, Other Needs and the Obligatory
Points to be connected by the road.
Control points between the Obligatory Points: Passes, Valleys,
River Crossings, Vertical and Overhanging Cliffs, forest and
Cultivated Land and Other Natural Features like Landslide
Prone and Other Unstable Areas.
Exploration of possibility of various alternative alignments:
preliminary investigation should start from the high
obligatory or control summit points and proceed downwards.

 Route should avoid the introduction of hair pin bends as far

as possible.
If such a situation becomes inevitable, the number of the
hairpin bends should be reduced to absolute minimum and
the inevitabilty of each hairpin bend should be recorded in
the reconnaissance report.
Hair pin bends should be located on stable and flat hill slopes
and their location in valleys should be avoided.
A series of hair pin bends on the same face of the hill should
be avoided.

 Adopt Easy Grades: economy of operating vehicles

Minimize Rise and Fall: by following a direct line as far as
possible between the obligatory points
Shortest Distance is an Important Factor: it may have to be
sacrificed in order to obtain easy curvatures and gradients to
avoid prohibitive cuts and fills and long river crossings.
Even a longer road length to easy gradient and curves may
result in a more economical operating cost.

Sequences of Survey Method in Hill Road

a) Map Study
b) Reconnaissance
c) Preliminary Survey
d) Determination of Final Center Line
e) Final Location Survey
Aerial Survey, Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Can be
taken to facilitate surveying for selection of alternative
alignment

 Alignment survey
Reconnaissance Tentative alignment after map study-topographical,
geological and meteorological
Trace cut route selected in step 1 is translated on the ground to
provide an access for subsequent detailed survey. A 11.2 m wide track is constructed with easier gradient

 Detailed survey
Fixing of bench marks
Cross section and longitudinal sections 15 m on straight, 30
m at sharp curves
Design of horizontal curves and hair pin bends
Soil investigation, geology, hydrology study

Factors Affecting Selection of Alignment in

Mountainous and Hilly Areas
Following points to be considered while aligning the hill roads:
i) Temperature
)Temperature of air varies inversely with altitude Air temperature in Hill is Lower
than in Valley.
)Amount of solar heat received with orientation.
)Temperature drops about 0.5 0C per 100 m of rise.
)Similarly, the amount of heat received by hill slopes varies enormously with their
orientation in relation to the exposure to sun.
)Slopes facing South or South West:
o) Snow disappears rapidly and rain water evaporates quickly
o) Unequal warming
o) Sharp temperature variations and erosion by water
o) Greatest destruction

ii)
Rainfall
) Amount of rainfall in hilly region is inversely proportional to the altitude
As the elevation increases rainfall also increases.
) In hilly regions, wind often flows along the valley and gorges, as
consequence of which the rainfall in the valley is substantially higher than
on high-lands and water-sheds.
) Also, maximum rainfall occurs in few months only. So these all uneven
situation create the problem in construction and maintenance of the road.
) Maximum rainfall
o) Zone of intensive cloud formation (1500 2500 m above the mean sea
level)
o) 40 60 mm increase in rainfall for every 1000 m of elevation
)

In summer there is very heavy rainfall having serious effect on the

construction and maintenance of roads

iii)
Atmospheric Pressure and Winds
Atmospheric pressure is inversely proportional to altitude it
decreases with increase in elevation
At high altitudes (3000 4000 m):
o Wind velocity is frequently coming at 25 30 m/s
o Freezing temperatures
o Depth of frost penetration 1.5 2.0 m
The change in character of wind is due to appreciable
difference of atmospheric pressure in valleys and on mountain
passes.
Therefore, there is intensive rock weathering and also the wind
contributes to the damage of low cost road pavements.

iv) Geological Conditions

Horizontal or almost vertical stratification of rock
The tendency of sedimentary rocks is to slip under the
influence of force parallel to the layer.
The degree of stability of hill slopes depends upon the type of
rock, the degree of strata inclination or dip, the occurrence of
clay seem, the hardness of rock and presence of ground water.
The instability of road may be due to ground water, landslides
and unstable folds.
Therefore we should follow the stable slope with no ground
water and the alignment should pass through the area where
the dip of strata is as small as possible.

v) Route location
)Hill road is characterized by longer routes with many sharp
curves.
)There are mainly two route location possibilities in case of hill
roads.
)The approach to the location of hill road alignment varies for
the sections along the valley bottom and along the mountain
pass.
)The first is called river route and second is called ridge
route.

a) River Route
The location of a route along the river valley is known as river route.
River route is frequently used in hill road due to comparatively
gentle gradient.
- It is advantageous that availability of water and other construction
material in vicinity.
- However, a river route may involve numerous horizontal curves,
construction of large bridges over tributaries and on stretches along
steeply sloping hill sides.
- It may also be necessary to construct special structures on hill side
for the safe of road against landslides.

Steep valley between tatopani and jomsom (nepal), annapurnas, cliff, dirt road

 Characteristics
1. Location: along a river valley
2. Most frequent case of hill road alignment
3. Comparatively gentle gradient

Merits
a. Serves the rural settlement
b. Low vehicle operating cost, availability of water and other construction
materials

Demerits
c. Numerous horizontal curves
d. Construction of special retaining and protection of walls on the hill sides
e. Extensive earthwork
f. Construction of large number of cross drainage structures
g. Steep sloping hill side may be insufficiently stable
h. Massive river training and protection works on the river side.

b) Ridge Route
A ridge route is characterized by very steep gradient,
numerous sharp curves including hair pin bends and the
expensive rock works.
- The road usually follows the top section of the hill system and
crosses successively mountain pass.
- Geologically stable and comparatively mild slope sections are
selected for the artificial development of the route.

 Very steep gradient

Large number of sharp curves including hairpin bends
Extensive rock works
Construction of special structures
Necessity of long length away from the air route
Geologically stable and comparatively mild slope should be
selected

 Most frequent Gentle slope

River
Route situated
Serves rural
settlement
next to the water course
Low vehicle operation cost

Ridge Route
Steep gradient, sharp curves including hair
pin bends

Availability
of
material and water

construction

Expensive rock works, successive

mountain pass

Route climbs up continuously from the

valley till mountain pass and descends
down

Involves numerous horizontal

curves, construction of large Construction of special structures, tunnels,
snow fences etc.
bridges
Special retaining protection on
hill sides
River training works may be
extensive- toe cutting, etc.

Are most stable

2. Geometric Standards
Geometric standards followed in hilly areas are different from those in at
plain terrain.
Roads in the hilly areas require special attention in fixing up the standards
for geometric design because of various factors: types of vehicles using the
roads, total daily tonnage, difficulty in construction, type of surface to be
provided, topography of the area, etc.
Alignment chosen should enable the ruling gradient to be attained in
minimum of the length, minimizing steep gradient, hairpin bends and
needless rise and fall.

 Hill roads have to negotiate through difficult topography, inhospitable terrain and extreme
climatic conditions.
Therefore geometric design standards of hill roads should be decided considering importance of
safety and free flow of traffic and for this uniform design standard should be followed.
The use of optimum design standards will reduce the possibility of early obsolescence of the
facilities.
Geometric features of a highway except cross sectional elements do not lend to stage
construction.
Improvement of features like grade and curvature at a later date can be very expensive and
sometimes be impossible.
It is therefore necessary that ultimate geometric requirements of hill roads are in view right in
the beginning.
Development of cross section in stages is technically feasible but this should be decided only
after careful consideration since hill roads need a lot of protective and drainage works like
retaining walls, breast walls, drains of various categories, etc. consistent with safety and
sometimes the road may have to be altogether rebuilt when same is upgraded.
If stage construction is unavoidable it is better to use dry masonry and/or crated masonry for
drains, breast walls, pitching, etc. locate the intercepting drains well back at the very start and
provide culverts to full width of formation/roadway to avid the need for their widening
subsequently.

Sight Distance
On hill roads stopping sight distance is absolute minimum
from safety angle and must be ensured regardless of any
other considerations.
It would be a good practice if this value can be exceeded and
visibility corresponding to intermediate sight distance
provided in as much length of road as possible.
If this is the case then the driver will be able to get reasonable
opportunities to overtake with caution and driving task
becomes much easier.
It is not normally feasible or practicable on hill roads to
provide overtaking sight distance.

Camber
Cross fall for each shoulder should be at least 0.5% more
than the pavements camber subject to a minimum of 3%.
If the shoulders are paved, cross fall appropriate to the type
of paved surface as given in the table above is provided.
On super elevated sections, the shoulders should normally
have the same cross fall as the pavement.

Lateral Clearance
Minimum clearance distance between the extreme edge of
the
carriageway
and
the
face
of
the
nearest
structure/obstruction should be equal to normal shoulder
width.
On lower category roads in hill areas having comparatively
narrow shoulders, it will be desirable to increase the roadway
width at underpasses to a certain extent.

Vertical Clearance
Minimum vertical clearance of 5 m should be given over the
entire roadway at all underpasses and similarly at
overhanging cliffs and semi tunnel sections.
Measured from the highest point of carriageway i.e. crown or
super elevated edge to the lowest point of overhead
structures/rock outcrop.

Horizontal Alignment
Should be fluent and blend well with the surrounding topography.
The flowing alignment conforming natural contours is aesthetically preferable.
The horizontal alignment should be coordinated carefully with the longitudinal profile.
Breaks in the horizontal alignment at cross drainage structures and sharp curves at the
end of the long tangents should be avoided.
Short curves for small deflection angles should be avoided.
The curves should be sufficiently long and have suitable transitions to provide pleasing
appearance.
Curve length should be at least 150 m for a deflection angle of 5
increased by 30 m for each degree decrease in the deflection angle.

and this should be

For deflection angles less than one degree, no curve is required to be designed.
Broken back curves should be avoided ad far as possible in the interest of aesthetics and
safety and replaced by a single curve.
If this is not feasible, a tangent length corresponding to 10 seconds travel time must at
least be ensured between the two curves.

Superelevation
The limiting value of super elevation is as under:
a) In snow bound areas = 7%
b) In hilly areas not bound by snow = 10%
)In attaining the required super elevation, it should be ensured
that the longitudinal slope of the pavement edge compared to
the center line (i.e. the rate of change of super elevation) is
not steeper than 1 in 150 for roads in plain and rolling terrain
and 1 in 60 in mountainous and steep terrain.

 Geometric design requirements for hill roads are different.

The design is made considering:
a) Complexity of the terrain
b) High altitude factors
c) Other problems in the design and construction

Gradient
In hill roads gradients are selected close to maximum to reduce the
road length and earthwork.
The tractive power of the vehicles decreases with the altitude.
This reduction in power output is due to changes in atmospheric
pressure, temperature and air density.
For this detailed vehicle performance study should be carried out
with the help of dynamic factor or speed chart.
High altitude factors include reduced density of air, low
atmospheric pressure, low boiling point of water and variation in
wind pressure.
In low atmospheric pressure, there will below water boiling point
resulting abnormal engine cooling conditions.

 A study on dynamic characteristics for the truck indicates

that:
If gradient is 4% the speed is 42 kmph
If gradient is 6% the speed is 32 kmph
If gradient is 8% the speed is 24 kmph
If the gradient chosen is 4% instead of 8%, the route will be
double in length but the speed will increase only 1.75 times.
This indicates in spite of decrease in gradient there is no gain
in travel time.

 Though steep gradient helps in reducing earthwork and length

of road, it also causes increased fuel consumption and
reduction in operating speed as the vehicles will be on low
gears for higher power output.

The distribution of the load on the vehicle axles will also be

unequal thereby causing overloading and excessive wear of
tires and the vehicle engine.

Hence careful judgment is required to meet the conflicting

requirements.

 Exceptional gradients are meant to be adopted only in very

difficult situations and for short lengths not exceeding 100 m
at a stretch.

Successive stretches of exceptional gradients must

separated by a minimum of 100 m having flatter gradient.

be

The cumulative rise/fall in elevation over 2 km length shall not

exceed 100 m in mountainous terrain and 120 m in steep
terrain.

Vertical Curve
Designed as square parabola.
Length of vertical curve is controlled by sight distance requirements
but curves with greater length are aesthetically better.
Curves should be provided at all grade change exceeding those
indicated in the table below and for satisfactory appearance.
Where horizontal and summit/crest curve overlap, the design should
provide for the required sight distance both in the vertical direction
along the pavement and in the horizontal direction on the inside of the
curve.

Passing Places
Required on single lane hill roads to facilitate crossing of
vehicles approaching from the opposite direction and to pull
aside a disabled vehicle so that it does not obstruct traffic.
Provided at the rate of 2-3 per km.

Design of Hair Pin Bends

In hilly regions difficult to avoid bends where direction of
the road reverse.
In hill road alignment, hair pin bends are introduced
particularly when necessary to attain height without
covering substantial horizontal distance.
Hair pin bends designed either as a Circular Curve with
Transition at each end or as a Compound Circular Curve.

 Inner and outer edges of the roadway should be concentric with

respect to the center line of the pavement.

Where a number of hair pin bends have to be introduced, a

minimum intervening distance of 60 m should be provided
between the successive bends to enable the driver to negotiate
the alignment smoothly.

At hair pin bends preferably the full roadway width should be

surfaced.

Types of Hair Pin Bends

1) Symmetrical Hair Pin Bend

2) Asymmetrical Hari Pin Bend

 C = total length of main curve, Cr = length of reverse

curves, and m = tangent (straights)
= acute angle of bend
R = radius of main curve
= angle subtends at the center
Points A and B are located at the apices of the
reverse curves.
Between the ends of the reverse curves and the
main curve of the bend tangents must be introduced
for the transitions of the super elevation and extra
width in the curve.
For the design and layout of hairpin bends element
such as radii of the main and reverse curves (R and
r) and length of the tangent (m) are initially selected
based on the site situation in conformity with the
required geometric standard.
The design of hair pin bends then basically consists
of establishing the value of the turning angle at
point A and B which satisfies the selected
parameters of the bend.

Expression for Hair Pin Bends

Simple expression may be derived based on the geometry of
hair pin bends.

3. Cross-section Design
Cross section of a road in hilly terrain is determined by:
o original ground slope of site,
o slope of the road formation,
o width of roadway,
o side drain size and
o shape and so on.

Various Configurations of Hill Road Cross

Sections
1. Cut and fill
2. Bench type
3. Box cutting
4. Embankment with retaining walls
5. Semi bridge
6. Semi tunnel
7. Platforms

1) Cut and Fill

With a hill side slope of over 2%, a cut and fill road bed is the cheaper and environment
friendly type of construction.
The fill mass is obtained from the cut material at the same location or within free haul
distance.
To ensure adequate stability of embankment, benches are made on the surface of the hill
side with a height of 0.5 m and a length varying 1.5 m to 3.0 m depending on the slope.
The settlement of the fill portion of road bed sometimes causes the appearance of
longitudinal cracks in the pavement.
That is why it is recommended to locate roads on stable hills cross slope exceeding 1 in 3
entirely in a cutting at the higher cost of making full bench.
Roads with hard and costly pavement structures are to be preferably located in full bench
while those with low cost surface (WBM, gravel, earthen) be made with cut and fill road
bed.

2) Bench Type
A cross section of the bench type although entailing some increase in
earthwork ensures the complete stability of the road bed, if hill side itself
is stable.

3) Box Cutting
When the location of road bed is unstable or unstable along the hill side
due to one or other reason, the road bed is designed as trench type of
cross section.
This type of road bed increases earthwork to a large extent.
It is introduced in order to meet the geometric design standards for
given category of road.
When a road is ascending up the grade is reduced substantially by
raising formation line at the beginning with fill and lowering the same at
the following section with box cutting.
This way, the length of road may be substantially reduced.

4) Embankment with Retaining Walls

On steep slopes over 30-35 degrees, the earthwork involved in
constructing the embankment slope line meets the natural ground line at
an acute angle far away from the center line of the road.
In the first case of retaining wall is provided to reduce the cost of
earthwork and to increase the stability of embankment.
When the original ground slope is steeper than the embankment slope
these two slope lines never meet down hill.
In the second case retaining walls are necessary to support the
embankment soil on steep ground at the edge if the road itself.
An embankment with retaining wall has a greater stability and should be
preferred.
Retaining walls are also constructed on a less steep ground slope to
increase the stability of road bed.

5) Semi Bridge
If the road is located across a steep hill slope retaining wall may have
to be of substantial height.
In such cases, in order to reduce the quantities of work, road bed with a
semi bridge type of structure may be constructed.
Part of the roadway is accommodated on bench cut and part on the semi
bridge.

6) Semi Tunnel
When cutting into steep hills in stable rock faces the rock may be
permitted to overhang the road, reducing rock works.
Such a cross section is called a semi tunnel.
Road in half tunneling is advantageous for high altitude hill roads as
they do not get blocked by snows.

7) Platform
On the precipitous/very steep slopes, where shifting of the route into the hill side will lead
to enormous rock work, which would substantially increase the cost of road construction
and where semi tunnel cannot be constructed due to the geological condition, platforms
are usually cantilevered out of the rock on which road way is partially located.
When cross slope of the hill is very small, road may be in full embankment.
Filling may be small or heavy.
In case of heavy filling, retaining walls should be constructed on both the side of the
formation.

4. Hill Side Drainage

Adequate drainage facility should be provided across the

road.
Attempts should be made to align the roads in such a way
where the number of cross drainage structures required are
minimum.
This will reduce the construction cost.

5. Stability of Slopes
For hilly areas, the road should be aligned through the side
of the hill that is stable.
The common problem with hilly areas is that of landslides.
Excessive cutting and filling for road constructions give way
to steepening of slopes which in turn will affect the stability.

5.3

Special Structures in Hill Roads

Construction of hill roads involves many special structures.

These may include wide range of structures which are used to
retain soil mass to increase stability of road embankment
slopes as well as natural hill slopes to accommodate road bed
in steep slope to penetrate deep through mountain pass and
so on.
Special structures are also required to dissipate energy of
surface water in the hill road drainage system to provide snow
avalanche control and protection system, river training and
erosion control to prevent scour under cutting and the cutting
by the river.

The following types of special structures are most frequently

used in the hill road in Nepal:
1.

Retaining Structures

2.

River Training Structures

3.

Landslide
Stabilization
Structures/Slope
Structures/Slope Stabilization Structures

4.

Erosion and Gully Control Structures

5.

Drainage Structures

Protection

1.

Retaining Structures

Classification of Retaining Walls

a) Based on Materials Used:
i) Dry stone masonry
ii) Stone filled gabion wire crates
iii) Stone masonry with cement sand mortar
iv) Composite (Dry Stone Masonry Filled in Cement Sand Mortar
Masonry Frame)
v) Plain Cement Concrete
vi) Reinforced Cement Concrete
vii)Timber or Steel

b) Based on Location with Respect to the Roadway

i) Hill Side or Valley Side Retaining Walls
ii) Toe walls
iii) Cut off Walls
iv) Revetment Walls or Breast Walls, etc.
Revetment walls are known as Breast Walls. They are not meant to
take the road and retain the soil mass but to prevent the cut slope
of fill slope made of loose eroding soils from further slip or erosion.
These walls are sloped towards cut or fill slope and are not intended
to resist overturning or sliding.

Uses of Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics which include:
Geotextile
Geogrids
Geonets
Geomembranes
Geocomposites
Can be used in various applications of road and bridge
works.
Some of the areas and their functions are:

c) Based on Structural Scheme (Principal Type of

Retaining Walls)
i) Gravity Walls
ii) Semi-Gravity Walls
iii) Cantilever Walls Counterfort Walls
iv) Buttressed Walls
v) Crib Walls
vi) Reinforced Soil Walls

2.

River Training Structures

Guide Bank System

Groynes or Spurs
Levees or Marginal Embankment or dykes/dikes
Bank Protection And Pitched Banks
Pitched Islands
Revetments
Cut-offs
Miscellaneous Methods
River Training Without Embankment
Bandalling

Guide Bank System

Types of Groynes or Spurs

1. According To The Materials
Used:
Permeable Groyne
Solid Impermeable Groyne

2. According To Its Height Below High Water:

Submerged Groyne
Non- Submerged Groyne

3. According To The Function It Serves:

Straight or Normal or Sedimenting Groyne
Repelling Groyne
Attracting Groyne
Deflecting Groyne

4. Special Types Of Groynes:

Hockey Type Groyne or Burma Type
Groyne
Inverted Hockey Groyne
Denehys T-headed Groyne
L-Headed Groyne
Slotted Groyne

Levees or Marginal Embankment

Levee along the Rapti River in Nepal

Bank Protection And Pitched Banks

Rock Rip Rap Revetment

Pitched Islands

Revetments

Cut-offs

Miscellaneous Methods
River Training Without Embankment
Bandalling

3. Landslide Stabilization Structures/Slope Protection

Structures/Slope Stabilization Structures

4.

Erosion and Gully Control Structures

5. Drainage Structures

1. Retaining Structures
A retaining structure is usually a wall constructed for the purpose of supporting or
retaining a vertical or nearly vertical earth bank which in turn may support
vertical loads.
It provides adequate stability to the roadway and to the slope.
Retaining walls are constructed on the valley side on the roadway and also on the
cut hill side to prevent slide towards the roadway.
They are also provided to retain the earth mass for elevated and depressed roads
where the embankment slope or cut slope cannot be extended beyond roadway.
Generally for hill slopes with gentle slope retaining walls may not be required.
For steeper slopes relative economy of cost of earth cutting and retaining wall
has to be compared.

 Other situations requiring the construction of retaining

walls are:
i) Places where the valley side surfaces gets saturated
in the monsoons and is likely to result in slip taking a
part of road with it.
ii) Ii) places where undercutting by a stream or other
water course causes damage to the valley side and
the road
iii) Iii) in valley point where water flows over the road
iv) Iv) to achieve roadway width, where cutting into hill is

 Revetment or breast walls are provided on the inner side of the road to give
support to the loose and unreliable soil of the cut up hill side.
The embankment slopes are normally protected with rough stone pitching
about 30 cm thick in order to avoid erosion due to flow of water.
Such walls perform the following functions:
a) Keep the road edge defined and also protect the drain to some extent.
b) The hill slope to the extent of breast wall height will remain protected from
slips and any slide above this height will flow over the top of the breast wall.
c) It would not allow continuity of the flowing mass of soil and would thus
facilitate the clearance of slides.
d) Assistance in drainage fro hill slope through weep holes in breast wall on to
the side drain in front of wall.

Bally Revetments:
In weak /wet sliding area, revetments of ballies/bamboos driven vertically and ties
horizontally in rows parallel to the road along the hill slopes above and below the
formation level to provide the temporary stability to the slope.
These can be replaced by breast walls of masonry or crated in due course.
At times the temporary revetment is enough to stabilize the slopes permanently, these
are provided.
If the revetment is made with selected varieties of fresh cut ballies, which take roots
quickly under wet conditions, it provides vegetation cover and adds to stability to the
slope.
If the sloping length is too long it is preferable to construct a toe wall as to support the
embankment. Where the cutting slope is steep and contains loose soils, slips are likely
to occur.
In such locations, revetment walls of dry stone masonry are constructed to retain the
soil on the cutting side to prevent occurrence of any such slip.

 Gravity walls are made of Dry Stone Masonry, Gabion, Stone Masonry with
Cement Mortar or Concrete. No problem of backfill drainage in case of
Dry Stone or Gabion Box Retaining Walls
Weeps Holes are provided at specific interval to facilitate backfill drainage
in case of Stone Masonry in Cement Mortar Joint
Compacted Backfill with crushed aggregates or river gravel are provided for
backfill to prevent choking of weep holes.
Another method of retaining the hill side can be by using wire crates filled
with stones and used as breast wall.
The suggested specification for crate wall is 3 m x 1.5 m size, consisting of
15 cm x 15 cm size square mesh of 10 gauge GI wire interwoven each other
in one or two tiers as required.

 In rocky stretches Dry Stone Walls/Revetments may be provided at narrow gullies

and re-entrants to provide additional width for movement of traffic taking
construction materials to site till the road is widened.
Proper dressing and leveling of foundation sloping towards hill side is essential.
Dry stone masonry is preferred to masonry in mortar as it helps easy drainage of
seeping water.
These are flexible and help stabilization of slope.
The design of retaining walls is based on the thumb rules and suggested thickness
of retaining walls should be not less than 0.5 m of height and a minimum top width
of 0.45 m to 0.60 m and a front batter of 1 in 4 with the rear side vertical.
For heights greater than 6 m, sections of (0.4 H + 0.3) to (0.5H + 0.6) m are
adopted with a top width of 0.75 m.
Also bands of coursed rubble masonry in cement mortar at vertical and horizontal
intervals of about 3 m each are constructed for added stability.

 When culverts/scuppers are constructed and waterfalls

above the retaining walls on the valley side to a
considerable height, in the form of free fall, there is
considerable erosion at the toe of the retaining wall.
In order to check this, one or a series of toe walls are
constructed in order to break the water force so that the
retaining wall does not get eroded.
In some cases, similar structures called Check Walls are
required in the stream bed on the upstream side of the
road to reduce the flow of debris which blocks the road.

Reinforced Soil Walls

It is a composite construction material in which the strength of fill is
enhanced through addition of inextensible tensile reinforcement in the form
of strips, sheets, grids or geotextiles.
The technique of construction is quite suitable for hilly areas mainly due to
the following reasons:
i) The fill materials which consists of mainly granular material is easily
available in all parts of the hilly areas from cutting of hill side during
construction of roads.
ii) These involve minimum alteration in natural slopes since the emphasis is
on avoiding the cutting of natural slope.
iii) The land width or actual embankment width required is less.
iv) This is cost effective and environment friendly.