2.

3.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Aim
Location
Method
Risk Assessment
Data Presentation
Interpretation
Evaluation

A2 Geography
Unit 4a
Revision Notes
Fieldwork Investigation
&
Geographical Skills

10. Averages
11. Measures of Dispersion
12. Spearmans Rank
13. Chi Squared
14. Mann-Whitney U
15. Sampling Methods
16. Maps with Located Symbols
17. Flow Maps
18. Desire Lines
19. Choropleth Maps
20. Isoline Maps
21. Dot Maps
22. Pie Charts
23. Radial Diagrams
24. Dispersion Diagrams
25. Triangular Graphs
26. Kite Diagrams
27. Logarithmic Graphs
28. GIS

Aim
TO INVESTIGATE DOWNSTREAM

Potential questions: importance of

CHANGE IN ASHES HOLLOW,
theory in choice of aim/ reason for
SPECIFICALLY THAT AFFECTING
choice/ importance of location in
DISCHARGE, IN LIGHT OF
choice/ relevance of a method/
BRADSHAWS MODEL FOR
evaluation of success in light of the
DOWNSTREAM
CHANGE
REASONS FOR CHOICE:
aim.

)
IMPORTANCE OF THEORY:
- Knowledge
- Prior knowledge needed a theory which
- Theory ability to test this. Link with
we would understand from prior study in order
location
that we could understand the processes
Risk assessment
involved, make an educated hypothesis to
Suitability & availability of location
begin & make educated conclusions. Had
already studied Bradshaw.
Available equipment, time &
resources
- Location needed a theory which we could
EVALUATION:
investigate in a safe, accessible, available
- Success of sampling method accuracy;
location
reliability; validity helped reach aim
- Risk assessment something we could - Appropriateness of location for reaching aim
safely test. Bradshaw safe in upper course - Conclusions reliability & validity. Statistical
- Equipment a theory which would not need test results: null hypothesis accepted goes
sophisticated/expensive instruments to test against theory so must question accuracy &
reliability. Suggest improvements &
- Challenge & learning one which would
developments in order to properly fulfil aim.
challenge our skills & allow us to learn new
- If contradicts theory why?
ones & new processes. Bradshaw involved
- Personal geographical development
investigating several different variables
(from mark scheme

stemming from reaching aim

Location
Potential questions: reasons
for choice/ importance of choice
in relation to aim/ relevance to
theory or aim/ why appropriate.
IMPORTANT TO CHOOSE A LOCATION
WHICH PROVIDED THE CONDITIONS
FOR US TO SAFELY & EFFECTIVELY
UNDERTAKE AN INVESTIGATION INTO
BRADSHAWS THEORY
APPROPRIATENESS IS BASED UPON
HOW WELL THE LOCATION ENABLED
US TO CARRY OUT THE INVESTIGATION
INTO BRADSHAWS MODEL
RELEVANCE TO THE THEORY OR AIM IS
MEASURED BY WHETHER THE
LOCATION PROVIDED THE CONDITIONS
NECESSARY TO CARRY OUT THE
INVESTIGATION INTO BRADSHAW IN
ORDER TO FULFUL OUR AIM
ACCURATELY AND SAFELY

REASONS:
- Accessibility footpath & B-road
nr. Little Stretton
- Safety upper course = shallowest,
narrowest, least fast flowing
- Typical upper course = suitable for
testing Bradshaw. Typified upper
course, Bradshaw based on the
perfect river. Needed upper course to
be textbook e.g. v-shaped valley
sides, would then be able to test
Bradshaws theory effectively.
- Proximity to field studies centre =
availability of equipment
- Average rainfall in Shropshire area
- Not affected by human activity
nearest settlement 2km downstream
- Owned by the National Trust
legal permission
- Safe terrain studying OS map,
could see that it was not too steep

Location Positive & Negatives of Ashes

Hollow
Positives

Negatives

Accessibility: footpath & Broad

National Trust land legal
permission
Nr. Field studies centre
equipment & resources
e.g. previous data
Upper course safe
Distance from
downstream village =
2km. No human
interference
Typified upper course =
could effectively & reliably
test Bradshaws theory as
is based on perfect river

Only 2km of upper course

not representative of
whole river which is what
Bradshaw theorises not
suitable for theory,
conclusions narrow
500m inaccessible due to
steep sides & waterfall
Only very shallow
Only used data from one
location broader, more
significant results if had
chosen more points either
further downstream or
along upper course of
similar rivers
Rocky outcrops affected

Method of Data Collection (Float

Method)
Potential questions: assess usefulness/ evaluate suitability/
evaluate effectiveness/ relevance to aim
Positives of method

Negatives of method

Gathered data necessary to reach

conclusion for our aim & theory
effectively. Velocity= distance/time.
Discharge = velocity x c.s.a
relevant to theory
Produced data which we could
effectively & suitably manipulate to
reach conclusions
Easy to carry out in environment
minimum equipment & light to
carry in terrain easy to achieve
aim
Easily repeated for accuracy
Suitable intervals enough sample
points to cover river yet did not
stretch resources or time

Subject to human error in timing,

measuring (both 5m stretch &
100m intervals) reduces
effectiveness & relevance to aim as
inaccurate so unreliable
Subject to natural influences e.g.
wind, debris, surface friction
same effect as above
Measured only surface velocity
channel velocity more suitable for
aim & theory
Required 2 people in river risk
Unsophisticated, inaccurate
equipment hydroprop/ digital flow
metre more effective, suitable &
relevant as more accurate &
reliable
Too shallow to be effective in areas
GPS more suitable for measuring
interval distances

Risk Assessment
Potential questions:
describe & justify/ evaluate

Need to mention steps before & during:

Pilot study familiarise with hazards that may come
up in field & prepare. Make adjustments to methods to
reduce potential risks.
Risk assessment grid before (before so could be
aware & prepare/familiarise with risks to avoid)
involved us studying the OS map = also beneficial for
our awareness of the area & hazards within
What we did to prepare e.g.
packed spare clothes in case of fall, stop hyperthermia
wore sturdy footwear reduce risk of trips & slips
wore waterproofs reduces likelihood of hyperthermia as stay dry

Continuous monitoring during e.g. weather

conditions/ water levels/ temperature/ human risks.

Data Presentation (Scatter

Potential questions:Graph)
evaluate effectiveness/ evaluate

alternatives/ assess usefulness/ how did the aim or results

influence
Positives of method
Negatives of method
Clear visual representation of
relationship between 2 variables
Esp. with distance on x axis:
illustrative representation of
downstream change in Ashes
Hollow useful & effective for
drawing conclusions to aim
Data continuous needed
scatter graph
The need to see relationship for
these 2 variables to meet aim
influenced choice
Allows for line of best fit
could see needed statistical test
as line hard to draw
Effective at communicating main
info necessary to reach
conclusion for aim
Anomalies easily identifiable -

Could only compare the 2

variables
Not statistically verifying
may see correlation, but need
statistical test to confirm
For better effectiveness, could be
located to give precise
conclusions for aim
Could have compared 2 variables
with another e.g.
depth/width/velocity on a
triangular graph

Interpretation Spearmans
Rank
Potential questions:
how & why useful for geog
understanding/ appropriateness for data & aim/ justify use
Appropriate:
Uses 10-30 data sets
Had 2 variables which we wanted to statistically verify a
correlation for
Continuous data with a relationship
Helped to achieve our aim: assess relationship between
discharge & distance statistically
Fact that it confirmed null hypothesis = helped to develop
geog understanding as then had to return to data/maps/previous
data/data from other rivers to understand why we achieved this
result turned out to be rocky outcrops helped further
understanding of external influences on river processes
Justifiable: 10 data sets, continuous data, 2 corresponding
variables, gave us the results needed to conclude our
investigation & develop our conclusions to understand why

Evaluation

Negatives & Improvements:

Only 2km of upper
Potential questions: evaluate success/
course: not representative
usefulness for geog understanding/
of whole river, does not
evaluate in light of its aim & theory/
parallel Bradshaw as he
covered whole long-profile
investigation development/
investigation needs
understanding theory/ use of secondary
extending
data to develop conclusions/ usefulness
Success:
Some methods inaccurate
of conclusion & implications
& unreliable: should have
Safely reached the aim of our investigation
While results were unexpected, could explain used GPS for sampling &
digital flow metre/hydroprop
why using secondary data e.g. OS maps &
for velocity measures too
previous data
much human error & natural
Helped to develop our geog
influence
understanding of river processes &
Only did 1 investigation
external factors e.g. rocky outcrops, which
did not repeat/take previous
affect them: now understand better the
data/data from different
processes affecting discharge, thus have
seasons may just have
better understanding of geog theory
been an anomaly
Location successful safe, easy to
500m stretch missed due
to health & safety
investigate & access
Systematic sampling may
Results may be useful for: the local
have caused to miss
authority e.g. council in town planning if
important sites between the
want to expand Little Stretton; farmers to

Averages Mean, Median,

Potential questions: usefulness
Mode
Mean:
for certain data/ appropriateness
for data sets/ benefits of use

The average of all values

Takes into account all data
values
Median:
Useful in making

The middle value

measurements more accurate
Very big & very small values do
as can take mean of repeats
not affect it less affected by
anomalies than the mean
Easily distorted by very large/
Used in Mann-Whitney U
very small values & anomalies
Mode:
statistical test
The most common
Can take a long time to calculate
Does not account for whole
Can also be used with nonspread of data
numerical data
If gap is large between some
There can be more than 1
values (e.g. 9 & 45) but small
There may not be a mode at
between others (e.g. 1 &3), the
all
accuracy of the median can be
Does not accurately represent
skewed
data or its spread

Measures
of
Dispersion
Potential questions:

Standard Deviation:
appropriateness of interquartile Measure of degree of dispersion
range & standard deviation for (how far deviates from the mean)
certain data/ usefulness of both Shows reliability of mean for a
data set
Interquartile Range:
High S.D. = large range so mean is
Difference between Upper less reliable as lots of variation
Quartile & Lower Quartile Links data to the normal
distribution 68% within 1 S.D.,
in ranked data
95% between 2 S.D.

UQ = (n+1)/4
Calculate mean subtract it from

LQ = 3(n+1)/4
each value square result
Measures spread of middle divide by no. values calculate
50% - not influenced by
square root.
extreme/outlying values Uses all data range only uses 2
More useful than mere range
= more accurate
Shows cluster about the Doesnt show full range of data

Can be affected by
median
outliers/anomalies

Spearmans Rank Correlation Coefficient

Potential questions: appropriateness
for certain data/ usefulness/
evaluate use in a certain investigation
Appropriate for data with 10-30 values with 2 variables which are believed
to be related.
Formulate a null hypothesis individually rank values of each variable
find the difference between the 2 square the differences sum the
Advantages
values input into the formulaDisadvantages
Assesses statistical relationship
between 2 variables.
Can confirm/reject null
hypothesis draw conclusions &
help geog understanding as, if
accept null, must investigate
further to find out why.
Used alongside a scatter graph for
visual representation SRCC gives
numerical value to strength &
direction of correlation.
Indicates statistical significance of
a result rules whether has
occurred by chance when used
with table of critical values so
evaluates an investigation
Gives objective data

Does not show if there is a causal

link
Too many tied ranks affect validity
of test
Subject to human error.

Chi Squared

Potential questions: comment on the results of a chi squared/ assess the usefulness
or appropriateness for a certain investigation
Test establishes whether observed patterns of spatial distribution differ from an expected
pattern is the variation from the expected distribution statistically significant?
The result will tell you if there is difference between 2 distributions e.g. there are more
GPs in rich areas & fewer in poor areas. These distributions then need to be tested for
significance to show if these findings were not brought about by chance.
If it shows that the significance does not reach the 95% level, then we can say that there
is too high a chance that it occurred by chance; if it goes over the 95% level, we can say
that there is less than 5% probability that the distribution was caused by chance.
Dividing data into cells to see distribution e.g. different wards, allows initial analysis

The test makes no assumptions of characteristics of data

However, does not give strength of the relationship.

Process:

Requirements:
1. Null hypothesis no relationship
The data must be in the form
between distribution of and of
of frequencies. Percentages 2. Subtract observed frequencies
cannot be used.
from expected
All the observations must be
3. Square result
independent of each other. 4. Divide this by the expected value
In other words, one observation
for that group
must not have an influence 5. Compare with degrees of freedom:

Mann-Whitney
U
Potential questions: comment on the results/ assess the usefulness or
appropriateness for a certain investigation

Used to show if there is a statistical difference between 2 sets of

data e.g. there is no difference between the size of rocks in
upper course & downstream sites
Assesses if the difference between 2 data sets occurred
by chance

Does not explain why there is a difference

If you find that the difference could have occurred by chance, it
may mean that the sample size was too small or that there
really is no statistically significant difference
Process:
Devise a null hypothesis e.g. there is no difference between the sizes of rock
upstream & downstream
Rank all the values across both sets (one rank not like Spearmans rank
where each variable is given a different rank)

Total the ranks beneath each column

Calculate U values for both using the formula

Use the smallest result to find the critical value from the critical values table

If it is lower than the critical value, null hypothesis is rejected

Sampling
Methods
Potential questions: which

Random Sampling:
Each item in parent population has
equal chance of selection avoids
bias
Allocate each value a number
use random number
table/computer generator to select
samples
Random numbers can be used to
choose a sample
From a list e.g. electoral rolls will
always achieve a usable value
By point sampling from a map e.g.
grid references may lead to
Use when have groups of a known size
selection of empty sites
within the parent population e.g. no. - By line sampling drawing a line
Victorian, 20th century & 21st century across a map between random cohouses in a town
ordinates & choosing random
Sample selected so each group is
points along it this may lead to
equally & fairly represented
selection of empty areas e.g.
fields/roads so not the best
Ensures fair representation
sampling method is most appropriate

or suitable/ usefulness of sampling

methods/ evaluate
use of this
Systematic:
sampling
method
Saves
time compared to random

Just as effective at choosing unbiased

data
May lead to leaving out areas which
may be significant to investigation

e.g. if going in 100m intervals

Can be more accurate than random
avoids possibility of random sampling
selecting too many of the same sites
May be able
to
avoid
empty
sites
Stratified:

Maps with Located Symbols

Potential questions: advantages & disadvantages/ evaluate
use of this presentational technique/ usefulness/
appropriateness/ suitability
Potential use: size of debris along long profile/ environmental
Positives
Negatives
quality surveys
Proportional bars easier to
draw & understand than
circles. Circles more
efficient & neater if there
is a large range
Clear representation of
located data means
more when located more
info
Comparisons easily made
between areas
Spatial patterns in
distribution shown

Do not show spread of

distribution need
choropleth/isoline
Can obscure parts of map/
get too crowded
May not be clear as to
precise location
Too many on one map
hard to interpret
Danger of merely
comparing graphs & not
looking at characteristics
of areas to explain reasons

Flow Maps
Potential questions: evaluate usefulness, suitability,
effectiveness or appropriateness of this technique
Potential use: migration from different EU countries/ trade links
between countries

Strengths

Strong visual impression of both

volume of movement & direction

Weaknesses
Parts of the map may be
obscured/crowded difficult to
interpret

Desire
Lines
Potential questions: evaluate usefulness or
appropriateness of this technique/ effectiveness/ suitability
Potential use: areas from which people travel to use a
service e.g. supermarket/ movement of EU migration

Strengths
Visual impression of movement from areas to a
point
Easy to interpret
May present many pieces of data for different
destinations many variables so very useful

Weaknesses

Too many lines = confusing

Proportional thickness does not show actual data
Do not show route/causes of movement
Generalise the movement

Choropleth Maps

Potential questions: evaluate the effectiveness, appropriateness,

suitability or usefulness of this technique
Potential uses: votes e.g. presidential election/ GNP per country/
levels of extreme poverty per country or region of a country

Positives

Negatives

Visual representation of
data
Can easily identify
patterns & clusters
Anomalies can be
identified if cells are an
adequate size
Can show relationships if
placed on top of another
Can be combined with
located/proportional
graphs to show more data
Groupings are flexible to
accommodate data spread

Imprecise larger cells =

lack of precision; too
many small cells = hard to
interpret
Abrupt changes sharp
delineation no gradient
shown
If using raw data, shading
may be influenced by size
of area/population within
Can hide anomalies within
One variable only
Inexact not the actual
data

Isoline Maps

Potential questions: evaluate effectiveness, appropriateness, suitability or

usefulness of this technique
Potential use: temperature/ atmospheric pressure/ gradient e.g. contour lines
Join points of the same value to show gradient

Strengths
Show more gradual
change than
choropleths avoid
abrupt change
Can clearly see
boundaries
Show gradients

Weaknesses
Unsuitable for showing
discontinuous data
Shading may imply
equal value between
lines
If drawing interpolated
lines (at equal
intervals e.g. 10m,
15m, 20m), may be
forced to draw
between lines

Dot Maps

Potential questions: evaluate usefulness, effectiveness,

suitability or appropriateness of this technique
Potential uses: population of a city/country/region

Strengths

Weaknesses

Show spatial
distribution using dots
of equal sizes
Precise
Show density
Can show change,
flows & clustering
As located according
to distribution, not
evenly, can see
anomalies
More realistic than

Only use raw data

Difficult to count large
numbers can result
in smudge which
shows no variation
Needs a lot of info
Tedious to construct
Cant show part
figures
Can be hard to plot if
location is not fixed
e.g. population of

Pie
Charts
Potential questions: evaluate suitability, effectiveness,
appropriateness, usefulness of this technique
Potential use: use of services in a town/ %age contribution of
different industries to economy

Strengths

Weaknesses

Clear visual
representation of
data
Shows %age totals
so can easily
compare
Circle size can also
be made
proportional to total
quantity to compare

May not show

numerical data
Can get crowded
with too many
divisions
Catagoric data only

Radial Diagrams

Potential questions: evaluate usefulness, appropriateness, suitability of

this technique
Potential use: environmental quality survey (if using as a radial bar chart
to compare)/ orientation of cirques/ annual temperature cycle

May show info like a bar chart

May show orientation e.g. like a compass
May show continuous cycles e.g. annual temperature cycle

Strengths
Can show direction,
orientation, distance
and continuous cycles
Visual representation
of data

Weaknesses
Can be difficult to read
Suitable for only
certain data i.e. that
which has direction
about a point or which
involves a cycle
May only show general
trends, not very

Triangular Graphs

Potential questions: evaluate

suitability, effectiveness, usefulness,
appropriateness of this technique
Potential use: employment structures
divided into tertiary, secondary &
primary

Strengths
Visual representation of
relationship between 3
variables
%ages are plotted
especially easy to
compare & contrast
Display relatively large
amount of data
Can see clustering

Weaknesses
Raw data must be turned
into %ages
Not many investigations
feature 3 variables
Can be difficult to
interpret, esp. if a lot of
data is plotted

Dispersion Diagrams

Potential questions: evaluate suitability, appropriateness,

usefulness or effectiveness of this technique
Potential use: discharge along the long profile of a river

Strengths

Weaknesses

Visual representation of
spread & range. Can
identify clustering
Prelude to statistical tests
e.g standard deviation
Can plot mean, median,
mode, interquartile range to
manipulate data & show
spread about these
averages
Enables comparison of
spread of data from

You cant see relationships

or draw conclusions as does
not show correlation like a
scatter graph

Kite Diagrams

Potential questions: evaluate effectiveness, appropriateness,

suitability or usefulness of this technique
Potential use: distribution of plant species along a transect of
a sand dune
Show presence/absence of species along a transect
Thickness shows no./%age of each species at a point
Thickness balanced equally below & above a line
Strengths
Weaknesses

Raw data or %ages

Visual representation of
change & progression
along a transect
Can identify zones
Can draw conclusions from
visual distribution
Draw correlations some
may show causal
relationships

Limited to transect lines

Only suitable for very
specific data with specific
purpose
Too many kites = difficult
to read & interpret

Logarithmic Graphs
Potential questions: evaluate
effectiveness, suitability, usefulness
or appropriateness of this technique
Potential use: population graphs
Strengths
Lots of data/ data with a large
range can be plotted
Smaller values are given greater
priority due to nature of logarithmic
scale 1-10
Can be semi-logarithmic or both
axes can be logarithmic
Variables of very different sizes can
be plotted on the same graph e.g.
population & time
Show progression & can draw
comparisons from different sources
e.g. population of different
continents
Can show previously unseen
patterns e.g. log graphs show
increase in world population to be

Used with very large ranges or

when an arithmetic graph
would produce a parabolic
relationship rather than a
straight line
Weaknesses
Cannot start from 0
May make some relationships
appear different as parabolic
curves on a normal graph become
straight on log graphs

GIS Geographical Information

Systems
Potential questions: advantages & disadvantages/ uses of/
usefulness/ effectiveness
Potential uses: used for public services e.g. refuse collection,
ambulance services, supermarket delivery services - show data
about location & area characteristics. GOOGLE EARTH best
example
Mergecartography,statistical analysis, anddatabasetechnology.

Strengths
Ability to show lots of
info, layered, on one
map
Info can be linked
together to identify
spatial patterns/
support analysis of
data

Weaknesses
Require expensive
software
Complicated may
require training in
creating & use
Too many layers =
difficult to interpret