LOGICAL

STRUCTURES
Discrete Mathematics 1

Discrete Mathematics
is the part of mathematics devoted to the
study of discrete objects
Discrete means consisting of distinct or
unconnected elements.

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LOGIC
is the study of reasoning.
is specially concerned with whether
reasoning is correct
focuses on the relationship among
statements as opposed to the content of
any particular statement

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PROPOSITION
A proposition is a declarative sentence
that is either true or false, but not both.
Example:

Manila

is the capital of the Philippines.

1 + 1 = 3.
2 < 5.
Today is Friday.

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PROPOSITION

Consider the following sentences:

What

time is it?
Read this carefully.
x + 1 = 2.
x + y = z.

Sentences 1&2 are not propositions because

they are not declarative sentences. Sentences
3&4 are not propositions because they are
neither true nor false, since the variables in
these sentences have not been assigned values.

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PROPOSITION
An atomic proposition is a proposition
whose truth or falsity is independent of
any other propositions.
A compound proposition is formed from
existing propositions using logical
operators.

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PROPOSITION
Conventional letters used to denote
propositions are p, q, r, s,
The truth value of a proposition is true,
denoted by T, if it is true and false,
denoted by F, if it is a false proposition.

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Propositional Logic
Operators

NEGATION
Let p be a proposition. The statement
It is not the case that p
is another proposition called the negation
of p.
The negation of p is denoted by p. The
proposition is read not p.

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NEGATION

Example:
p: Today is Friday.
p: It is not the case that today is
Friday.
or
Today is not Friday.

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NEGATION

Truth Table

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Exercise
Give the negation of the following
propositions:
1. John

missed the final examinations.

2. Mary is a vegetarian.
3. 1 + 5 = 9.
4. 4 > 0.

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CONJUNCTION

Let p and q be propositions. The

proposition p and q, denoted p q, is the
proposition that is true when both p and q
are true and is false otherwise. The
proposition p q is called the conjunction
of p and q.

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CONJUNCTION

Example:
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining today.
p q: Today is Friday and it is raining
today.

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CONJUNCTION

Truth Table:

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pq

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Exercise

Let p and q be the propositions

p: It is below freezing.
q: It is snowing.
Write these propositions using p and q and
logical connectives.
a.
b.
c.

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It is below freezing and snowing.

It is below freezing but not snowing.
It is not below freezing and it is not snowing.

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Exercise

Calculate the truth values:

a.
b.

(1>0) (2<1)
(0<1) (1<2)

Write out the truth tables for

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p (q)
(p q) r

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DISJUNCTION

Let p and q be propositions. The

proposition p or q, denoted p q, is the
proposition that is false when p and q are
both false and true otherwise. The
proposition p q is called the disjunction
of p and q.

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DISJUNCTION

Example 1:
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining today.
p q: Today is Friday or it is raining today.
Example 2:
r: I want to eat chicken.
s: I want to eat spaghetti.
r s: I want to eat chicken or spaghetti.

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DISJUNCTION

Truth Table:

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pq

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Exercise

Let p and q be the propositions

p: The election is decided.
q: The votes have been counted.
Express each of these compound
propositions as an English sentence:

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p q
q (p q)
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Exercise

Calculate the truth values (assuming p =

T, q = F, r = F)

b.

p (q r)
(p q) (p r)

Write out the truth tables for

a.
b.

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p (p q)
(q r) (p q)

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EXCLUSIVE OR

Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive

or of p and q, denoted by pq, is the
proposition that is true when exactly one
of p and q is true and false otherwise.

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EXCLUSIVE OR

Example:
p: Students who have taken calculus
can enroll in this class.
q: Students who have taken computer
science can enroll in this class.
p q: Students who have taken
calculus or computer science,
but not both, can enroll in this class.

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EXCLUSIVE OR

Truth Table:

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pq

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IMPLICATION

Let p and q be propositions. The

implication p q is the proposition that is
false when p is true and q is false, and
true otherwise. In this implication p is
called the hypothesis (or antecedent or
premise) and q is called the conclusion (or
consequent).

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IMPLICATION

Example:
p: I am elected.
q: I will lower taxes.
p q: If I am elected, then I will
lower taxes.

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IMPLICATION

Ways to express implication:

if p, then q p implies q
if p, q p only if q
q if p q whenever p
q when p
q is necessary for p
q follows from p
p is sufficient for q
a sufficient condition for q is p
a necessary condition for p is q

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Exercise

State each statement in the form if p, then

q in English:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

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It snows whenever the wind blows from the

northeast.
The apple trees will bloom if it stays warm for a
week.
It is necessary to walk 8 miles to get to the top
of Longs Peak.
To get tenure as a professor, it is sufficient to be
world-famous.
Your guarantee is good only if you bought your
CD player less than 90 days ago.
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IMPLICATION

Truth Table:

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pq

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IMPLICATION

q p is called the converse of p q.

q p is called the contrapositive of

pq.

p q is called the inverse of pq

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IMPLICATION

What is the contrapositive, converse, and

inverse of the ff. propositions
a.
b.
c.
d.

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The home team wins whenever it is raining.

That you get a job implies that you had the best
credentials.
To be a citizen of this country, it is sufficient that
you were born in the Philippines.
I will remember to send you the address only if
you send me an e-mail message.

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IMPLICATION
The contrapositive, q p, of an
implication p q has the same truth value
(or equivalent) as p q.
Neither the converse nor the inverse have
the same truth value as p q for all
possible truth values of p and q.

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Exercise

Determine whether these implications

are true or false:
a.
b.
c.
d.

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If 1+1=2, then 2+2=5.

If 1+1=3, then 2+2=4.
If pigs can fly, then 1+1=3.
If 1+1=3, then pigs can fly.

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Exercise

Construct the truth table for each of

these compound propositions:
a.
b.

d.

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(p q) (p q)
(p q) (p q)
p (q r)
(p q) (p r)

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BICONDITIONAL

Let p and q be propositions. The

biconditional p q is the proposition that
is true when p and q have the same truth
values, and is false otherwise.

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BICONDITIONAL

Example:
p: You can take the flight.
q: You buy a ticket.
p q: You can take the flight if and
only if you buy a ticket.

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BICONDITIONAL

Ways to express biconditional statement:

p if and only if q
p is necessary and sufficient for q
if p then q, and conversely
p if q

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BICONDITIONAL

Truth Table:

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pq

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Exercise

Express each proposition in the form p if

and only if q in English.
a.

b.
c.

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For you to get a 5.0 in this course, it is

necessary and sufficient that you learn how to
solve discrete mathematics problems.
It rains if it is a weekend day, and it is a
weekend day if it rains.
You can see the wizard only if the wizard is not
in, and the wizard is not in only if you can see
him.

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Precedence of Logical Operators

Operator

Precedence

2
3

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4
5

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PROPOSITIONAL
EQUIVALENCES

Definitions
A compound proposition that is always
true, no matter what the truth values of the
propositions that occur in it, is called a
tautology.
A compound proposition that is always
false is called a contradiction.
A proposition that is neither a tautology
nor a contradiction is called a contingency.

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Tautologies and Contradictions

Examples of Tautology and Contradiction:

p p and p p

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p p

p p

T
F

F
T

T
T

F
F

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LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES

The propositions p and q are called

logically equivalent if p q is a tautology.
The notation p q denotes that p and q
are logically equivalent.

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LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES

Example: Show that (p q) and p q are

logically equivalent. (one of De Morgans
laws)
p q
T
T
F
F

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T
F
T
F

p q (p q)
T
T
T
F

F
F
F
T
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p q

F
F
T
T

F
T
F
T

F
F
F
T
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Exercise

Show that p q and p q are logically

equivalent.

Show that p (q r) and (p q)(p r)

are logically equivalent.

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Logical Equivalences
Equivalence
pTp
pFp
pTT
pFF
ppp
ppp
(p) p
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Name
Identity laws
Domination laws
Idempotent laws
Double negation law

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Logical Equivalences
Equivalence
pqqp
pqqp
(p q) r p (q r)
(p q) r p (q r)
p (q r) (p q) (p r)
p (q r) (p q) (p r)
(p q) p q
(p q) p q
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Name
Commutative laws
Associative laws
Distributive laws
De Morgans laws
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Logical Equivalences
Absorption laws

p (p q) p
p (p q) p
p p T
p p F

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Negation laws

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Logical Equivalences Involving

Implications

p q p q
p q q p
p q p q
p q (p q)
(p q) p q
(p q) (p r) p (q r)
(p r) (q r) (p q) r
(p q) (p r) p (q r)
(p r) (q r) (p q) r

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Logical Equivalences Involving

Biconditionals
p q (p q) (q p)
p q p q
p q (p q) (p q)
(p q) p q

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Equational Reasoning
Show that (p q) (p q) is a tautology.
Show that (p (p q)) and p q are
logically equivalent.
Show that (p q) ( p q) is a
tautology.
Show that (p q) p and (q p) are
logically equivalent.

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