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THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

PERCEPTION
the process of receiving information about and making
sense of the world around us.
Perception begins when environmental stimuli are received
through our senses. Most stimuli that bombard our senses
are screened out; the rest are organized and interpreted.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
is the process of attending to some information received by
our senses and ignoring other information. Selective
attention is influenced by characteristics of the person or
object being perceived, particularly size, intensity, motion,
repetition, and novelty.

MODEL OF THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

PERCEPTUAL ORGNIZATION AND

INTERPRETATION
CATEGORICAL THINKING
organizing people and objects into preconceived categories
that are store in our long-term memory.
Things are often grouped together on the basis of their
similarity or proximity to others. Another form of perceptual
grouping is based on the need for cognitive closure, such as
filling in missing information about what happened. A third
form of grouping occurs when we think we see trends in
otherwise ambiguous information.

MENTAL MODELS
visual or relational images in our mind that represents
the external world.
We rely on mental models to make sense of our
environment through perceptual grouping; the models
fill in the missing pieces, including the causal
connection among events. The most important way to
minimize the perceptual problems with mental models
is to constantly question them.

SELF CONCEPT: SOCIAL SELF

SOCIAL IDENTITY
defining ourselves in terms of groups to which we belong or
have an emotional attachment.
Groups selected when easily identified, your membership is the
exception, the group has high status

STEREOTYPING
Assigning traits to people based on social
category membership
Why people stereotype:
Categorical thinking
Innate drive to comprehend and predict others
behavior
Supports self-enhancement and social identity

STEREOTYPING THROUGH
CATEGORIZATION, HOMOGENIZATION,
DIFFERENTIATION
Social identity and self-enhancement reinforce stereotyping
through:
CATEGORIZATION PROCESS
Categorize people into groups
HOMOGENIZATION PROCESS
Assign similar traits within a group; different traits to other
groups
DIFFERENTIATION PROCESS
Assign less favorable attributes to other groups

PROBLEMS WITH STEREOTYPING

Problems with stereotyping
Overgeneralizes doesnt represent everyone in the
category
Basis of systemic and intentional discrimination
Overcoming stereotype biases
Difficult to prevent stereotype activation
Possible to minimize stereotype application

ATTRIBUTION THEORY
ATTRIBUTION PROCESS
the perceptual process of deciding whether an observed
behavior or event is caused largely by the person
(internal factors) or by the environment (external
factors).
Internal factors include the persons ability or motivation,
whereas external factors include lack of resources, other
people, or just luck.
People rely on the three attribution rules (consistency,
distinctiveness, consensus) to determine someones
behavior attribution

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS
FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR
the tendency to see the person rather than the
situation as the main cause of the persons behavior.
SELF SERVING BIAS
the tendency to attribute our favorable outcomes to
internal factors and our failures to external factors.

SELF FULFILLING PROPHECY

the perceptual process in which our expectations
about another person cause that person to act in a
way that is consistent with those expectations.

CONTINGENCIES OF SELF-FULFILLING
PROPHECY
Self-fulfilling prophecies are more powerful under some
conditions than others. The self-fulfilling-prophecy effect is
stronger at the beginning of a relationship, or when several
people (rather than just one person) hold the same
expectations of the individual.
POSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
a perspective of organization behavior that focus on building
positive qualities and traits within individuals or institutions
as opposed to focusing on what is wrong with them.

OTHER PERCEPTUAL ERRORS

HALO EFFECT
our general impression of a person usually based on one
prominent characteristic which colours our perception of
other characteristics of that person.
PRIMACY EFFECT
we quickly form an opinion of people on the basis of the first
info we receive about them.
RECENCY EFFECT
the most recent information dominates our perception of
others.
FALSE CONSENSUS EFFECT
overestimating the the extent to which others have beliefs
and characteristics similar to our own

GANENDRAS

DICKYS

AWARENESS OF PERCEPTUAL BIASES

One of the most obvious and widely practiced ways to
reduce perceptual biases is by knowing that they
exist.
However, awareness has only a limited effect. For
example, trying to correct misinformation about
demographic groups has limited effect on people with
deeply held prejudices against those groups.
Also, self-fulfilling prophecy training informs managers
about this perceptual bias and encourages them to
engage in more positive rather than negative selffulfilling prophecies, yet research has found that
managers continue to engage in negative self-fulfilling
prophecies after they complete the training program.

IMPROVING SELF-AWARENESS
A more powerful way to minimize perceptual biases is
to help people become more aware of biases in their
own decisions and behavior
We need to understand our beliefs, values, and
attitudes to be more open-minded and nonjudgmental
toward others.
But how do we become more self-aware?
One formal procedure, called the Implicit Association
Test (IAT), detects subtle race, age, and gender bias by
associating positive and negative words with specific
demographic groups

The open area includes

information about you that is
known both to you and to
others.
The blind area refers to
information that is known to
others but not to you. For
example, your colleagues might
notice that you are selfconscious and awkward when
meeting the company chief
executive, but you are unaware
of this fact.
Information known to you but
unknown to others is found in
the hidden area.
Finally, the unknown area
includes your values, beliefs,
and experiences that arent
known to you or others.

The main objective of the Johari Window is to increase the

size of the open area so that both you and colleagues are
aware of your perceptual limitations. This is partly
accomplished by reducing the hidden area through
disclosureinforming others of your beliefs, feelings, and
experiences that may influence the work relationship.The
open area also increases through feedback from others
about your behavior. This information helps you to reduce
your blind area, because coworkers often see things in
you that you do not see. Finally, the combination of
disclosure and feedback occasionally produces revelations
about information in the unknown area.

MEANINGFUL INTERACTION
Self-awareness and mutual understanding can also
improve through meaningful interaction.
This statement is based on the contact hypothesis,
which states that, under certain conditions, people
who interact with each other will be less prejudiced or
perceptually biased against each other.
Meaningful interaction does more than reduce our
reliance on stereotypes. It also potentially improves
empathy toward others, that is, the extent to which
we understand and are sensitive to the feelings,
thoughts, and situations of others

LEARNING IN ORGANIZATIONS
LEARNING
A relatively permanent change in behavior
(or behavioral
tendency) that occurs as a result of a person's interaction
with the environment
TYPES OF LEARNING:
-Explicit knowledge
-Tacit knowledge
PERSPECTIVES OF LEARNING:
-Reinforcement
-social learning,
-and direct experience

LEARNING IN ORGANIZATIONS
LEARNING THROUGH REINFORCEMENTS
Behavior modification
A-B-Cs:
Antecedents, Behavior, Consequences
CONTINGENCIES OF REINFORCEMENTS:
Positive, Punishment, Negative, Extinction
SOCIAL LEARNING Learning by observing
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
Behavior modeling, Learning behavior consequences,
Self-reinforcement

LEARNING IN ORGANIZATIONS
LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIENCES
Most tacit knowledge and skills are acquired through
experiences as well as observation
1) Engage
2) reflect & form
3) experimentation
Learning orientation

GANENDRAS