Basics Communication Theory

&
Antenna theory

Welcome All Trainees

Course No. 270
By

Rajesh Suwalka
Engineer (WMTDC)

Analog Vs Digital Signals

BASIC COMMUNIATION THEORY

Transmitter:The sub-system that takes the information signal and

processes it prior to transmission. The transmitter modulates the
information onto a carrier signal, amplifies the signal and broadcasts it
over the channel

Channel:The medium which transports the modulated signal to the

receiver. Air acts as the channel for broadcasts like radio. May also be a
wiring system like cable TV or the Internet.

Receiver:The sub-system that takes in the transmitted signal from the

channel and processes it to retrieve the information signal. The
receiver must be able to discriminate the signal from other signals
which may using the same channel (called tuning), amplify the signal
for processing and demodulate (remove the carrier) to retrieve the
information.

MODULATION & Its types

WHY Modulation

AM & FM
FM

AM

Comparison between AM and

FM

Comparison between AM and FM

Bandwidth Calculation

AM

FM

Modulation Index =
frequency deviation /
Modulating Signal
frequency
Percentage modulation
= frequency deviation
actual / frequency
deviation max
Carson formula for BW
of FM

MOBILE COMMUNICATION CDMA & GSM

GSM

CDMA

Based on TDMA

It's a "time division" system. Calls

take turns. Your voice is
transformed into digital data, which
is given a channel and a time slot,
so three calls on one channel look
like this: 123123123123. On the
other end, the receiver listens only
to the assigned time slot and
pieces the call back together.

Based on CDMA
CDMA required a bit more processing
power. It's a "code division" system.
Every call's data is encoded with a
unique key, then the calls are all
transmitted at once; if you have calls
1, 2, and 3 in a channel, the channel
would just say 66666666. The
receivers each have the unique key to
"divide" the combined signal into its
individual calls.
Code division turned out to be a more
powerful and flexible technology, so
"3G GSM" is actually a CDMA
technology, called WCDMA (wideband
CDMA) or UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telephone System).

Comparison between CMDA and GSM

Mobile communication system

Sub-systems of GSM

I.
II.
III.

GSM networks consist of thee major systems:

SS, which is known to be The Switching System;
BSS, which is also called The Base Station; and
the Operation and Support System for GSM networks.

Below all three systems are defined in details with sub systems of each system.
The Switching System The Switching system is very operative system in which many crucial
operations are conducted, SS systems holds five databases with in it which performs different
functions. If we talk about major tasks of SS system it performs call processing and
subscriber related functions. These five databases from SS systems are HLR, MSC, VLR, AUC
and EIR. Lets study each database in detail and learn what functions this little systems
performs.

HLR- Home Location Register:

HLR is database, which holds very important information of subscribers. It is mostly known
for storing and managing information of subscribers. It contains subscriber service profile,
status of activities, information about locations and permanent data of all sorts. When new
connections are purchased, these subscribers are registered in HLR of mobile phone
companies.

Sub-systems of GSM

MSC- Mobile Services Switching Center:

MSC is also important part of SS, it handles technical end of telephony.It is build to perform
switching functionality of the entire system. Its most important task is to control the calls to and
from other telephones, which means it controls calls from same networks and calls from other
networks. Toll ticketing, common channel signaling, network interfacing etc are other tasks which
MSC is responsible for.

VLR- Visitor Location Register:

VLR performs very dynamic tasks; it is database which stores temporary data regarding subscribers
which is needed by Mobile Services Switching Center-MSC VLR is directly connected to MSC, when
subscribe moves to different MSC location, Visitor location register VLR integrates to MSC of
current location and requests the data about subscriber or Mobile station ( MS ) from the Home
Location Register HLR. When subscriber makes a call the Visitor location register-VLR will have
required information for making call already and it will not required to connect to Home Register
Location HRL again.

AUC-Authentication Center:
AUC is small unit which handles the security end of the system. Its major task is to authenticate and
encrypt those parameters which verify users identification and hence enables the confidentiality of
each call made by subscriber. Authentication center AUC makes sure mobile operators are safe
from different frauds most likely to happen when hackers are looking for even smallest loop wholes
in systems.

Sub-systems of GSM

EIR Equipment Identity Register:

EIR is another important database which holds crucial information regarding mobile
equipments. EIR helps in restricting for calls been stolen, malfunctioning of any MS, or
unauthorized access. AUC Authentication center and EIR- Equipment Identity
registers are either Stand-alone nodes or some times work together as combined
AUC/EIR nodes for optimum performance.

The Base Station System (BSS) The base station system have very important role in
mobile communication. BSS are basically out door units which consist of iron rods and
are usually of high length. BSS are responsible for connecting subscribers (MS) to
mobile networks. All the communication is made in Radio transmission. The Base
station System is further divided in two systems. These two systems, they are BSC,
and BTS. Lets study these two systems in detail.

BTS The Base Transceiver Station:

Subscriber, MS (Mobile Station) or mobile phone connects to mobile network through
BTS; it handles communication using radio transmission with mobile station. As name
suggests, Basetransceiver Station is the radio equipment which receive and transmit
voice data at the same time.BSC control group of BTSs.

Sub-systems of GSM

BSC The Base Station Controller:

The Base Station normally controls many cells, it registers subscribers, responsible for MS
handovers etc. It creates physical link between subscriber (MS) and BTS , then manage and
controls functions of it. It performs the function of high quality switch by handover over the
MS to next BSC when MS goes out of the current range of BTS, it helps in connecting to
next in range BTS to keep the connection alive within the network. It also performs
functions like cell configuration data, control radio frequency in BTS. Data moves to MSCMobile switching center after BSC done processing it. MSC is switching center which acts
as bridge between different mobile networks.

The Operation and Support System (OSS)

OMC- Operations and maintenance center is designed to connect to equipment of MSCMobile Switching Center and BSC-Base Station Controller. The implementation of OMC is
called OSS-The Operations and Support System.OSS helps in mobile networks to monitor
and control the complex systems.The basic reason for developing operation and support
system is to provide customers a cost effective support and solutions. It helps in managing,
centralizing, local and regional operational activities required for GMS networks.

Maintaining mobile network organization, provide overview of network, support and

maintenance activities are other important aspects of Operation and Support System

Relation between different areas

in GSM

In a GSM network, the following areas

are defined:
Cell : Cell is the basic service area;
one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is
given a Cell Global Identity (CGI), a
number that uniquely identifies the
cell.
Location Area : A group of cells form
a Location Area (LA). This is the area
that is paged when a subscriber gets
an incoming call. Each LA is assigned
a Location Area Identity (LAI). Each
LA is served by one or more BSCs.
MSC/VLR Service Area : The area
covered by one MSC is called the
MSC/VLR service area.
PLMN : The area covered by one
network operator is called the Public
Land Mobile Network (PLMN). A PLMN
can contain one or more MSCs.

CDMA Code Division

Multiple Access

CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple accesstechnique. A spread spectrum technique

spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A spreading
code is a pseudo-random code.

In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be
transmitted. Data for transmission is combined via bitwiseXOR(exclusive OR) with the
faster code. The figure shows how a spread spectrum signal is generated. The data signal
with pulse duration of (symbol period) is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration
of (chip period).

Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the
codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems.
The best performance will occur when there is good separation between the signal of a
desired user and the signals of other users.

Handoff/Handover

Handoff or Handover is the term most popular in cellular communication. It refers to transfer of
mobile connection from one resource to another without disconnecting the voice or data call and
falls in following categories. This happens when mobile device is moving at vehicular speed and
using wireless cellular connection for voice/data call.

Factors causing handoff/handover in the wireless system:

1. Signal strength/power
2.speed of the device/mobile
3. weaker signal from serving Base station and strong signals from neighbor base stations
4. Bit Error Rate
5. Interference from adjacent channels

There are two main types soft handoff and hard handoff based on connection with the target
resource.

Hard handoff - break before make, in this type connection with the source channel/BTS/BSC is
first broken before making connection with target channel/BTS/BSC.
soft handoff - make before break, in this type connection with the source channel/BTS/BSC is
retained for sometime before connection with the target channel/BTS/BSC is established. In this
type user of cellular network will not experience any glitch and will continue to receive better
service.

Antenna Types and

Applications

Antenna Principles
Radiation Resistance
Antenna Pattern
Directivity and
Gain
Bandwidth
Signal-To-Noise
Ratio

Rrad

Prad
2
I

Antenna Principles

Antenna Gain: The parameter that measures the degree of directivity of antennas radial pattern is
known as gain. An antenna with a higher gain is more effective in its radiation pattern. Antennas
are designed in such a way that power raises in wanted direction and decreases in unwanted
directions.
G = (power radiated by an antenna)/(power radiated by reference antenna)

Aperture: This aperture is also known as the effective aperture of the antenna that actively
participate in transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves. The power received by the
antenna gets associated with collective area. This collected area of an antenna is known as
effective aperture.

Directivity and Bandwidth: The directive of an antenna is defined as the measure of concentrated
power radiation in a particular direction. It may be considered as the capability of an antenna to
direct radiated power in a given direction. It can also be noted as the ratio of the radiation intensity
in a given direction to the average radiation intensity. Bandwidth is one of the desired parameters
to choose an antenna. It can be defined as the range of frequencies over which an antenna can
properly radiates energy and receives energy.

Polarization: An electromagnetic wave launched from an antenna may be polarized vertically and
horizontally. If the wave gets polarized in the vertical direction, then the E vector is vertical and it
requires a vertical antenna. If vector E is in horizontal way, it needs a horizontal antenna to launch
it. Sometimes, circular polarization is used, it is a combination of both horizontal and vertical ways.

Antenna Principles

Polarization and its different types

Polarization is defined as the orientation of

electric field as a function of direction. The
polarization of the radio wave can be defined by
direction in which the electric vector E is
aligned during the passage of atleast one full
cycle.

Types of Antennas

Log Periodic Antennas

Bow Tie Antennas
Log-Periodic Dipole Array

The polarization are of three types.

Linear Polarization: A linearly polarized wave

is one in which the electric field remains in only
one direction

Travelling Wave Antennas

Helical Antennas
Yagi-Uda Antennas

Elliptical polarization : The

vector rotates and form a
polarization ellipse.

Microwave Antennas
Rectangular Micro strip Antennas
Planar Inverted-F Antennas

Circular polarization : The electric filed vector

rotates and form a circle and this wave is called
circularly polarized wave.

Reflector Antennas
Corner Reflector
Parabolic Reflector

electric field
ellipse called

Wire Antennas
Short Dipole Antenna
Dipole Antenna
Monopole Antenna
Loop Antenna

Antenna Types
Wave Dipole
E:
H:

Wave Monopole
E:
H:

Antenna Types
Loop Antennas

Microstrip Antennas

Antenna Types
Horn Antennas
Helical
Antennas

Log Periodic Antenna

The ratio of the successive element

lengths (L_(n+1)/L_n) be equal to some
constantk, and that the distance
between elements (d_(n+1)/d_n) also
equalk. This is a log periodic structure.

Log-Periodic antennas antennas are

designed for the specific purpose of
having a very widebandwidth . The
achievable bandwidth is theoretically
infinite; the actual bandwidth achieved
is dependent on how large the structure
is (to determine the lower frequency
limit) and how precise the finer
(smaller) features are on the antenna
(which determines the upper frequency
limit).

Antenna Applications
VHF and UHF Antennas

Transmitting Tower

UHF/VHF/FM
Receiving Antenna