Brute Force

RAIK 283: Data Structures & Algorithms
Brute Force *
Dr. Ying Lu
ylu@cse.unl.edu
September 20, 2012
*slides referred to
http://www.aw-bc.com/info/levitin
Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 3
Brute force
A straightforward approach usually based on problem

statement and definitions
Examples:
Selection Sort
Graph Traversal
Simple Computational Tasks
Exhaustive Search
1.
2.
3.
4.
Graph traversal
Many problems in A.I. and operations research require the

systematic processing of vertices and edges of graphs
Graph traversal algorithms:

Depth-first search
Breadth-first search
First, graph representations!
Graph representations using data structures
Adjacency Matrix Representation

Let G = (V, E), n = |V|, m = |E|, V = {v1, v2, , vn)
G can be represented by an n n matrix C
Adjacency list representation
Traversing graphs
Depth-First Search (DFS) and Breadth-First

Search (BFS)
Two elementary traversal strategies

Both provide efficient ways to visit each vertex and
edge of a graph
Both work on directed and undirected graphs
They differ in the order of visiting vertices
Depth-first search
Explore graph always moving away from last visited

vertex
Pseudocode for Depth-first-search of graph G=(V,E)
DFS(G)
count :=0
mark each vertex with 0
(unvisited)
for each vertex v V do
if v is marked with 0
dfs(v)
dfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark v with count
for each vertex w adjacent to
v do
if w is marked with 0
dfs(w)
Example undirected graph
dfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark v with count
Depth-first traversal:
v do
w)
Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter dfs(
4
8
Question
How to rewrite the procedure dfs(v), using a stack to

eliminate recursion
dfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark v with count
for each vertex w adjacent to v do
dfs(w)
Non-recursive version of DFS algorithm

Algorithm dfs(v)
s.createStack();
s.push(v);
count := count + 1
mark v with count
while (!s.isEmpty()) {
let x be the node on the top of the stack s;
if (no unvisited nodes are adjacent to x)
s.pop(); // backtrack
else {
select an unvisited node u adjacent to x;
s.push(u);
count := count + 1
mark u with count
}
}
10
Time efficiency analysis
DFS can be implemented with graphs represented as:

Adjacency matrices:
DFS(G)
count :=0
(unvisited)
dfs(v)
dfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark v with count
v do
dfs(w)
11

Adjacency linked lists:
DFS(G)
count :=0
(unvisited)
dfs(v)
dfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark v with count
v do
dfs(w)
12

Adjacency matrices: (V2)
Adjacency linked lists: (V+E)
DFS(G)
count :=0
(unvisited)
dfs(v)
dfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark v with count
v do
dfs(w)
13
Application: checking graph connectivity and

finding connected components
DFS(G)
count :=0
(unvisited)
dfs(v)
dfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark v with count
v do
dfs(w)
14
Application: checking acyclicity
DFS(G)
count :=0
(unvisited)
dfs(v)
dfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark v with count
v do
dfs(w)
15
Breadth-first search
Explore graph moving across to all the neighbors of last

visited vertex
Similar to level-by-level tree traversals
Applications: same as DFS, but can also find paths from a

vertex to all other vertices with the smallest number of
edges
16
Breadth-first traversal:
17
Depth-first search could be implemented on a stack

How about breadth-first search
18
Breadth-first search algorithm

bfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark v with count
for each vertex v V initialize queue with v
do
while queue is not empty do
if v is marked
a := front of queue
with 0
for each vertex w adjacent to a do
BFS(G)
count :=0
bfs(v)
count := count + 1
mark w with count
add w to the end of the queue
remove a from the front of the queue
19
Breadth-first search: Notes
BFS has same efficiency as DFS and can be

implemented with graphs represented as:
Adjacency matrices: (V2)
Adjacency linked lists: (V+E)
20
In-class exercise
Exercise 3.2.3 Gadget testing

A firm wants to determine the highest floor of its
n-story headquarters from which a gadget can
fall with no impact on the gadgets functionality.
The firm has two identical gadgets to
experiment with. Design an algorithm in the
best efficiency class you can to solve this
problem.
21
Brute force polynomial evaluation
Problem: Find the value of polynomial

p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + + a1x1 + a0
at a point x = x0
22

p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + + a1x1 + a0
at a point x = x0
Algorithm:
x := x0
p := 0.0
for i := n down to 0 do
power := 1
for j := 1 to i do
power := power * x
p := p + a[i] * power
return p
Efficiency:
23

p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + + a1x1 + a0
at a point x = x0
Algorithm:
x := x0
p := 0.0
power := 1
for j := 1 to i do
power := power * x
return p
Efficiency: (n2)
24

p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + + a1x1 + a0
at a point x = x0
Algorithm: x := x
0
p := 0.0
power := 1
for j := 1 to i do
power := power * x
return p
Efficiency: (n2)
Can we design aDesign
linear
algorithm for this problem
and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 3
25
Polynomial evaluation: improvement
We can do better by evaluating from right to left:

+ a 1 x1 + a0
at a point x = x0
Algorithm:
p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 +
x := x0
p := a[0]
power := 1
for i := 1 to n do
power := power * x
return p
Efficiency: (n)
26
Polynomial evaluation: improvement
We can do better by evaluating from right to left:

+ a 1 x1 + a0
at a point x = x0
Algorithm:
p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 +
x := x0
p := a[0]
power := 1
for i := 1 to n do
power := power * x
return p
Efficiency: (n)
Can we design a better than linear algorithm for this
problem
27
Brute force closest-pair algorithm
Closest pair
Problem: find the closest pair among n points in k-dimensional
space
28
Closest pair

space
Algorithm: Compute distance between each pair of points and
identify the pair resulting in the shortest distance
What is (or should be) the basic operation of the algorithm?
29
Closest pair
space
Basic operation (squaring):
( xi yi ) 2
i 1
( xi yi ) 2
i 1
30
Closest pair
Problem: find the closest pair among n points in k-dimensional space
Basic operation:
( xi yi ) 2
i 1
( xi yi ) 2
i 1
How many different pairs of points?

31
Principle of counting: Product Rule
The Product Rule

Suppose that a procedure can be broken down into a sequence of
two tasks. If there are n1 ways to do the first task and for each of
these ways of doing the first task, there are n2 ways to do the second
task, then there are n1n2 ways to do the procedure.
32
Principle of counting: Product Rule
The Product Rule

Suppose that a procedure can be broken down into a sequence of
two tasks. If there are n1 ways to do the first task and for each of
these ways of doing the first task, there are n2 ways to do the second
task, then there are n1n2 ways to do the procedure.
Calculation
Applying the product rule, there are n*(n-1) pairs among n points
Considering (a, b) and (b, a) as the same, we divide the above
number by 2 and thus, there are n*(n-1)/2 different pairs of points
33
Closest pair
Problem: find the closest pair among n points in k-dimensional space
Basic operation:
( xi yi ) 2
i 1
( xi yi ) 2
i 1
Efficiency:
(n2)
34
In-class exercise
Can you design a faster algorithm than the one based on

the brute-force strategy to solve the closest-pair problem
for n points x1, x2, , xn on the real line?
What is the time efficiency of your algorithm?
35
In-class exercise
Can you design a faster algorithm than the one based on

the brute-force strategy to solve the closest-pair problem
for n points x1, x2, , xn on the real line?
Algorithm:
Step1: Sort the numbers in ascending order, O(nlogn)
Step 2: Compute the differences between adjacent numbers in
the sorted list, (n)
Step 3: Find the smallest such difference, (n)
Running time of the entire algorithm:
O(nlogn) + (n) + (n) = O(nlogn)
36
Convex hull problem
Convex hull
Problem:
Find smallest convex polygon enclosing
n points on the plane
Convex:
A geometric figure with no
convex indentations.
Formally, a geometric figure is
convex if every line segment
connecting interior points is entirely
contained within the figure's interior.
Non-convex
37
Example: Convex Hull

Input: p1,p2,p3,p4,p5,p6,p7,p8,p9,p10,p11
p9
Output: p2,p9,p11,p4,p5,p6,p8,p2
p11
p4
p1
p2
p3
p7
p8
p10
p6
p5
Convex hull: application domain*
Computer visualization, ray tracing

(e.g. video games, replacement of bounding boxes)
Path finding
(e.g. embedded AI of Mars mission rovers)
Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

(e.g. computing accessibility maps)
Visual pattern matching

(e.g. detecting car license plates)
Verification methods
(e.g. bounding of Number Decision Diagrams)
Geometry
(e.g. diameter computation)
*slide refer to http://www.montefiore.ulg.ac.be/~briquet/algo3-chull-20070206.pdf
39
Convex hull brute force algorithm
Extreme points of the

convex polygon
Consider all the points in the
polygon as a set. An extreme
point is a point of the set that
is not a middle point of any
line segment with end points
in the set.
p9
p11
p4
p1
p2
p3
p7
p8
p10
p5
p6
40
Extreme points of the

convex polygon
Consider all the points in the
polygon as a set. An extreme
point is a point of the set that
is not a middle point of any
line segment with end points
in the set.
p9
p11
p4
p1
p2
p3
p7
p8
p10
p5
p6
Which pairs of extreme points need to be connected

to form the boundary of the convex hull?
41
A line segment connecting two points Pi and Pj of a

set of n points is a part of its convex hulls
boundary if and only if all the other points of the
set lies on the same side of the straight line through
these two points.
42
The straight line through two points (x1, y1), (x2,

y2) in the coordinate plane can be defined by the
following equation
ax + by = c
where a = y2 y1, b = x1 x2, c = x1y2 - y1x2
Such a line divides the plane into two half-planes:

for all the points in one of them: ax + by > c, while
for all the points in the other, ax + by < c.
43
Algorithm: For each pair of points p1 and p2

determine whether all other points lie to the same
side of the straight line through p1 and p2, i.e. whether
ax+by-c all have the same sign
Efficiency:
44
Algorithm: For each pair of points p1 and p2

determine whether all other points lie to the same
side of the straight line through p1 and p2, i.e.
whether ax+by-c all have the same sign
Efficiency: (n3)
45
Exhaustive search: definition
A brute force solution to a problem involving

search for an element with a special property,
usually among combinatorial objects such as a
permutations, combinations, or subsets of a set.
46
Exhaustive search: method
Construct a way of listing all potential solutions to

the problem in a systematic manner
all solutions are eventually listed
no solution is repeated
Evaluate solutions one by one, perhaps

disqualifying infeasible ones and keeping track of
the best one found so far
When search ends, announce the winner
47
Example 1: Traveling salesman problem
Given n cities with known distances between each

pair, find the shortest tour that passes through all
the cities exactly once before returning to the
starting city.
Alternatively: Find shortest Hamiltonian circuit in
a weighted connected graph.
Example:
2
a
48
Traveling salesman by exhaustive search
Tour
abcda
abdca
acbda
acdba
adbca
adcba
Efficiency:
Cost
2+3+7+5 = 17
2+4+7+8 = 21
8+3+4+5 = 20
8+7+4+2 = 21
5+4+3+8 = 20
5+7+3+2 = 17
49
Traveling salesman by exhaustive search
Tour
abcda
abdca
acbda
acdba
adbca
adcba
Efficiency: (n-1)!/2
Cost
2+3+7+5 = 17
2+4+7+8 = 21
8+3+4+5 = 20
8+7+4+2 = 21
5+4+3+8 = 20
5+7+3+2 = 17
50
0-1 Knapsack problem
Given a knapsack with maximum capacity W, and

a set S consisting of n items
Each item i has some weight wi and benefit value vi
Problem: How to pack the knapsack to achieve

maximum total value of packed items?
51
0-1 Knapsack problem: a picture

Weight
Items
This is a knapsack
Max weight: W = 20
W = 20
Benefit value
wi
vi
2
3
3
4
10
52
0-1 Knapsack problem
Problem, in other words, is to find
max vi subject to
iT
w W
iT
The problem is called a 0-1 problem,

because each item must be entirely accepted or
rejected.
In the Fractional Knapsack Problem, we can
take fractions of items.
53
0-1 Knapsack problem: brute-force approach
Lets first solve this problem with a

straightforward algorithm
We go through all combinations (subsets) and

find the one with maximum value and with
total weight less or equal to W
54
Example 2: Knapsack Problem

Given n items:
weights: w1 w2 wn
values: v1 v2 vn
a knapsack of capacity W
Find the most valuable subset of the items that fit into the
knapsack
Example:
item
weight
1
2
2
5
3
10
4
5
value
$20
$30
$50
$10
Knapsack capacity W=16
55
Knapsack by exhaustive search

Subset
Total weight
0
{1}
2
{2}
5
{3}
10
{4}
5
{1,2}
7
{1,3}
12
{1,4}
7
{2,3}
15
{2,4}
10
{3,4}
15
{1,2,3}
17
{1,2,4}
12
{1,3,4}
17
{2,3,4}
20
{1,2,3,4}
22
Total value
$0
$20
$30
$50
$10
$50
$70
$30
$80
$40
$60
not feasible
$60
not feasible
not feasible
not feasible
Most valuable subset?

Efficiency:
56
0-1 Knapsack problem: brute-force approach
Algorithm:
We go through all combinations and find the one
with maximum value and with total weight less or
equal to W
Efficiency:
Since there are n items, there are 2n possible
combinations of items.
Thus, the running time will be O(2n)
57
Brute force strengths and weaknesses
Strengths:
wide applicability
simplicity
yields reasonable algorithms for some important problems
sorting; matrix multiplication; closest-pair; convex-hull
yields standard algorithms for simple computational tasks
and graph traversal problems
58
Brute force strengths and weaknesses
Weaknesses:
rarely yields efficient algorithms
some brute force algorithms unacceptably slow
e.g., the recursive algorithm for computing Fibonacci numbers
not as constructive/creative as some other design techniques
59

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RAIK 283: Data Structures & Algorithms

A straightforward approach usually based on problem

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 3

Many problems in A.I. and operations research require the

Graph traversal algorithms:

First, graph representations!

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Graph representations using data structures

Adjacency Matrix Representation

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Adjacency list representation

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Depth-First Search (DFS) and Breadth-First

Two elementary traversal strategies

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Explore graph always moving away from last visited

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Example undirected graph

How to rewrite the procedure dfs(v), using a stack to

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Non-recursive version of DFS algorithm

Time efficiency analysis

DFS can be implemented with graphs represented as:

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Time efficiency analysis

DFS can be implemented with graphs represented as:

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Time efficiency analysis

DFS can be implemented with graphs represented as:

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Application: checking graph connectivity and

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Application: checking acyclicity

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Explore graph moving across to all the neighbors of last

Similar to level-by-level tree traversals

Applications: same as DFS, but can also find paths from a

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Example undirected graph

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Example undirected graph

Depth-first search could be implemented on a stack

Breadth-first search algorithm

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Breadth-first search: Notes

BFS has same efficiency as DFS and can be

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 4

Exercise 3.2.3 Gadget testing

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 3

Brute force polynomial evaluation

Problem: Find the value of polynomial

Design and Analysis of Algorithms Chapter 3

Brute force polynomial evaluation

Problem: Find the value of polynomial

Brute force polynomial evaluation

Problem: Find the value of polynomial

Brute force polynomial evaluation

Problem: Find the value of polynomial

Polynomial evaluation: improvement

We can do better by evaluating from right to left:

p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 +

Polynomial evaluation: improvement

We can do better by evaluating from right to left:

p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 +