Nor Azimah Khalid

FSKM, UiTM Shah Alam

Analog Transmission
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Digital-to-Analog Conversion

Digital-to-Analog
Conversion
Digital Data with Analog Signals

This method is used to send computer information

over transmission channels that require analog

signals, like a fiber optic networks, computer modems,
cellular phone networks, and satellite systems.
An electromagnetic carrier wave is used to carry the
information over great distances and connect digital
information users at remote locations.
The digital data is used to modulate one or more of
the parameters of the carrier wave (carrier signal)
Carrier signal refers to high frequency signal acts as
a basis for the information signal produce by the
sending device or source signal

Digital-to-Analog
Modulation
Modulation

A process converting binary data (low-pass analog

signal) to a band pass analog signal or

The process of modifying some characteristic of a

wave (the carrier) so that it varies synchronized with the
instantaneous value of another wave (the modulating wave)
in order to transmit a message. The modified characteristic
may be frequency, phase, and/or amplitude.
Digital-to-analog modulation
a process of changing one of the analog signal characteristic
based on the information in a digital signal

Digital-to-Analog
Modulation

A little terminology
A signal is composed of 1 or more bits
In data transmission more concern about the efficiency of data

movement from one destination to another

Signal required
system efficient
bandwidth required to
transmit bits
A signal is composed of 1 or more bits
The baud rate determine the bandwidth required to send signal
Defined as
Bit rate=baud rate x number of bits per signal
Bit rate baud rate
Bit rate is the number of bits per second, baud rate is the number of
signal elements per second.
In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate

Example
An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit.

If 1000 signal units are sent are sent per second,

find the baud rate and the bit rate

Solution

Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)

Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps

Example
The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit

carries 6 bits, what is the baud rate?

Solution
Baud rate =

bit rate

= 3000
number of bits per signal unit
= 500 baud/s

Example
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud

rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are carried

by each signal element? How many signal elements do we
need?

Solution

In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L

are unknown. We find first the value of r and then

the value of L.

Amplitude Shift Keying

Amplitude changing while frequency and phase remain constant

The strength of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
The presence of a carrier wave to indicate a binary one and its absence

to indicate a binary zero

A popular ASK technique called on-off keying (OOK), for example it is
used at radio frequencies to transmit Morse Code
Drawback:
Highly susceptible to noise interference refers to unintentional voltage
probably affected by heat or electromagnetic induction created by other
sources
Advantages:
Reduction in the amount of energy required to transmit information

Binary Amplitude Shift

Keying

Example
Find the minimum bandwidth for an ASK signal

transmitting at 2000 bps. The transmission mode

is half-duplex.

Solution

In ASK the baud rate and bit rate are the

same. The baud rate is therefore 2000. An ASK

signal requires a minimum bandwidth equal to its
baud rate. Therefore, the minimum bandwidth
is 2000 Hz.

Example
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal,

what are the baud rate and bit rate?

Solution

In ASK the baud rate is the same as the

bandwidth, which means the baud rate is 5000.

But because the baud rate and the bit rate are
also the same for ASK, the bit rate is 5000 bps.

Example
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz), draw the

full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the carriers and

the bandwidths in each direction. Assume there is no gap
between the bands in the two directions

Solution

For full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is

BW = 10000 / 2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of
each band
fc (forward) = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3500 Hz
fc (backward) = 11000 5000/2 = 8500 Hz

Solution

Frequency Shift Keying

In Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) the frequency of the

carrier signal is varied to represent binary 0 and 1

Peak amplitude and phase remain constant
FSK not affected by noise because receiving device focus
on the specific frequency change over a number of
period and ignore voltage
The common FSK is Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BPSK)

Example
Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal

transmitting at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex

mode, and the carriers are separated by 3000 Hz

Solution
For FSK

BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0

BW = bit rate + fc1 - fc0 = 2000 + 3000 = 5000 Hz

Example
Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the bandwidth

of the medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference between the

two carriers is 2000 Hz. Transmission is in full-duplex mode

Solution

Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is

allocated for each direction.

BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0
Baud rate = BW - (fc1 - fc0 ) = 6000 - 2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the bit
rate is 4000 bps

Example
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3 Mbps.

The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the number of

levels (different frequencies), the baud rate, and the
bandwidth

Solution

We can have L = 23 = 8. The baud rate is S = 3 MHz/3 =

1000 Mbaud. This means that the carrier frequencies must

be 1 MHz apart (2f = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B = 8
1000 = 8000. Figure below shows the allocation of
frequencies and bandwidth.

Phase Shift Keying

In Phase Shift Keying the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to

represent data
Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant while the
phase tend to change e.g. if the phase begin with 0 it will
represent binary 0, then it can change to binary 1 by beginning
with phase 180
The common technique is 2-PSK and Binary PSK use 2 different
phase
Not susceptible to noise degradation that affects ASK or
bandwidth limitations of FSK

Binary Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature PSK

it uses 2 separate BPSK modulation; in phase and quadrature

(out-of-phase)
first, incoming bits passed through a serial-parallel conversion,
that send one bit to one modulator and the next bit to other
modulator
2 composite signal create by each multiplier with same

PSK Constellation

A constellation diagram is a representation of a digital

modulation scheme in the complex plane

help to define the amplitude and phase of a signal
element
useful when dealing with multilevel ASK, PSK or QAM
A constellation diagram can perform in some methods
approach depend on the variation of phase changes such
as 2-PSK, 4-PSK and 8-PSK

Quadrature PSK / 4-PSK

Get more efficient use if each signal element

represents more than one bit

E.g. shifts of /2 (90 )
Each element represents two bits
Split input data stream into 2 & modulate onto

carrier & phase shifted carrier

Can use 8 phase angles and more than one

amplitude
9600bps modem uses 12 angles, 4 of which

have two amplitudes

Quadrature PSK / 4-PSK

Four
variations and
each
phase
shift
represent
2
bits
A pair of bits
represented
by
each
phase = dibit

More
efficient
because able
to
transmit
twice the data

8-PSK

In 8-PSK each phase shift represent 3 bit (tribit)

8-PSK contribute 3 time efficiency compared to 2-PSK

Example
Find the bandwidth for a 4-PSK signal transmitting

at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode.

Solution

For 4-PSK baud rate is the same as the bandwidth. 4-PSK

carried dibit, therefore bid rate = 2 x baud rate.
So:
2000bps = 2 x N baud rate
N baud rate = 2000/2
Baud rate = 1000
Baud rate = bandwidth = 1000Hz

Example
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal,

what are the baud rate and bit rate?

Solution

For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth, which
means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8-PSK the bit rate is 3
times the baud rate, so the bit rate is 15,000 bps.

Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation

QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line

(ADSL)
Combination of ASK and PSK
Logical extension of QPSK
Send two different signals simultaneously on
same carrier frequency
Use two copies of carrier, one shifter 90
Each carrier is ASK modulated
Two independent signals over the same medium
Demodulate and combine for original binary output

Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation

QAM Variants

Time Domain for 8-QAM

Signal

Bit and Baud Rate

Comparison
Modulatio
n

Units

Bits/Baud Baud rate

Bit Rate

ASK, FSK,
2-PSK

Bit

4-PSK, 4QAM

Dibit

2N

8-PSK, 8QAM

Tribit

3N

16-QAM

Quadbit

4N

32-QAM

Pentabit

5N

64-QAM

Hexabit

6N

128-QAM

Septabit

7N

256-QAM

Octabit

8N

Example
A constellation diagram consists of eight equally

spaced points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800

bps, what is the baud rate?

Solution

The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45 degrees

apart. Since 23 = 8, 3 bits are transmitted with each signal
unit. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800 / 3 = 1600 baud

Example
Compute the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM

signal.

Solution

A 16-QAM signal has 4 bits per signal unit since

log216 = 4.
Thus,
(1000)(4) = 4000 bps

Example
Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM

signal.

Solution

A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since

log2 64 = 6.
Thus,
72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud

Analog-to-Analog
Modulation

This modulation is to represent analog data to analog

signal
e.g.: radio each radio station has been assigned a
baseband bandwidth. The analog signal produced by
each radio station is low-pass signal, all in same range.
To ensure different stations able to listen, the low-pass
signal need to be shifted to a different range

Analog-to-Analog
Modulation

Amplitude Modulation

The total bandwidth

required for AM can
be determined from
the bandwidth of the
audio signal:
BAM = 2 x B

Amplitude Modulation

AM Band Allocation
The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and

music)5 KHz, therefore, minimum bandwidth for

AM radio station = 10KHz. Basically, for AM,
allocate carrier frequency = 530Hz 1700KHz.
Each Station Radio frequency must have minimum
distance 10Khz among each other

Example
We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 KHz.

What is the bandwidth needed if we modulate the

signal using AM? Ignore FCC regulations.

Solution

An AM signal requires twice the bandwidth of the original

signal:
BW = 2 x 4 KHz = 8 KHz

Frequency Modulation

The total bandwidth

required for FM can
be determined from
the bandwidth of the
audio signal:
BFM = 2(1 + )B

Frequency Modulation

FM Band Allocation
The bandwidth of a stereo audio signal is usually

15 KHz. Therefore, an FM station needs at least a

bandwidth of 150 KHz. The FCC requires the
minimum bandwidth to be at least 200 KHz (0.2
MHz).

Example
We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 MHz.

What is the bandwidth needed if we modulate the

signal using FM? Ignore FCC regulations.

Solution

An FM signal requires 10 times the bandwidth of the original

signal:
BW = 10 x 4 MHz = 40 MHz

Phase Modulation

The total bandwidth

required for PM can be
determined from the
bandwidth
and maximum
amplitude of the
modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + )B.

Phase Modulation