Disinfection

Jae K. (Jim) Park, Professor

Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Wisconsin-Madison
1

Disinfection: Definition
The process designed to kill or inactivate most

microorganisms in wastewater, including

essentially all pathogenic (disease-causing)
organisms
Sterilization
Kills all life forms
Too expensive
Not necessary

Disinfection Sterilization
2

Pathogenic Organisms
Bacteria, viruses, cysts, or protozoa which can cause

disease in a host (such as a person)

Giardiasis (protozoa)
Cryptosporidiosis (protozoa)
Typhoid (bacteria)
Cholera (bacteria)
Dysentery (bacteria or protozoa)

There are many types of organisms which do NOT

cause disease and which are NOT called pathogenic.

3

Pathogens
Detection
Lots of different organisms bacteria, protozoa,

viruses
Small numbers
Hard to detect
Indicator organisms
An organism which is more plentiful than the
disease organism, easier to detect, and still specific
for the region from the discharge occurs
E. coli: Indicator Organism
More numerous than pathogens
Easier to detect than pathogens
4

Disinfection
Selective destruction of disease-causing organisms in water

supply or wastewater effluent.

Necessary for safe potable water supplies and for healthy
rivers and streams

Method of Disinfection
Physical methods
Heat (pasteurization)
Ultraviolet radiation (function of penetration depth, contact
time, and turbidity or SS)
Radiation
Gamma ray emitted from a radioactive source such as cobalt
60 effective to disinfect or sterilize water, wastewater, and
sludge unsafe
Chemical methods
Oxidizing agents - chlorine, bromine, iodine, O3, H2O2,
KMnO4
Alcohols
Phenol and phenolic compounds
Heavy metals, quaternary ammonium compounds (positively
charged polyatomic ions of the structure NR4+ with R being
alkyl groups)
Soaps and synthetic detergents
Alkalies and acids
6

Chlorination
Effective in destroying a variety of bacteria, viruses and

protozoa, including Salmonella, Shigella and Vibrio

cholera.
Wastewater chlorination was initially applied in 1910 in
Philadelphia, PA, and was soon implemented in many other
cities in the United States based on this early success.
Benefits:
Disinfection
Controlling odor and preventing septicity
Aiding scum and grease removal
Controlling activated sludge bulking
Controlling foaming and filter flies
Stabilizing waste activated sludge prior to disposal
Foul air scrubbing
Destroying cyanides and phenols
Ammonia removal

Chlorine
Cl2 gas, Ca(OCl)2, NaOCl, and ClO2
Used for disinfection, taste and odor control, color
removal, oxidation of ammonia, and iron,
manganese, sulfide, and BOD removal.
Advantages: cheap, effective, available in large
quantities, nontoxic in low concentrations to higher
forms of life, and residual.
Disadvantages: acid generation (HCl), buildup of
total dissolved salts, and formation of potentially
carcinogenic, halogenated organic compounds
Selection based on the size of the treatment facility,
objectives, economics, and safety considerations

Chlorine Chemistry
Efficiency: contact time, chlorine dosage, temp., pH,

nature of liquid and suspended matter, and type and

number of organisms
Free Chlorine Residual
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + H+ + ClHOCl H+ + OClCa(OCl)2 + 2H2O 2HOCl + Ca(OH)2
NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOH
Combined Chlorine Residual
NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl + H2O
NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 + H2O
NHCl2 + HOCl NCl3 + H2O

Breakpoint Chlorination
NH2Cl + NHCl2 + HOCl N2O + 4HCl
4NH2Cl + 3Cl2 + H2O N2 + N2O + 10HCl
2NH2Cl + HOCl N2 + H2O + 3HCl
NH2Cl + NHCl2 N2 + 3HCl

Chlorine Residual
mg Cl2/mg NH4-N

8
6

NHCl2

HOCl + OCl-

NH2Cl

NCl3

0
0

10

12

Chlorine Dose, mg Cl2/mg NH4-N

14

16
10

Chlorine Dosages for Proper Disinfection

of Wastewater Effluents
Effluent Dosage range
mg/L
Untreated wastewater 6~25
Primary sedimentation 5~20
Chemical precipitation 3~10
Trickling filter 3~10
Activated sludge 2~8
Multimedia filter following activated 1~5
sludge plant
For disinfection of wastewater, a chlorine residual of 0.5
mg/L after 20~30 min. of contact time is required.
11

Total Coliform Remaining in the Effluent

Total chlorine
Total chloroform (#/100
mL)
residual (mg/L) Primary eff. Secondary eff.
0.5~1.5 24,000~400,000 1,000~12,000
1.5~2.5 6,000~24,000 200~1,000
2.5~3.5 2,000~6,00060~200
3.5~4.5 1,000~2,00030~60
Contact time: 30 min.
Initial primary effluent: 3.5 107 total coliform/100 mL
Initial secondary effluent: 1 106 total coliform/100 mL
12

Design of Chlorination System (1)

Chlorine Supply
Gaseous or liquid supplied in 45.4~68 kg (100~150 lb)
cylinders
> 350 lb of/day draw-off rate to prevent frosting
Weight monitoring for dose control
907-kg (1 ton) containers

55~90 ton tank cars

Chlorine rail car

accident, Aiken, SC
Jan. 7, 2005

13

Design of Chlorination System (2)

Design and Safety Consideration (1)
Chlorine room near the point of application
Chlorine storage and chlorinator equipment housed in a

separate building
Adequate exhaust ventilation at floor level provided
because chlorine gas is heavier than air
Chlorine storage separated from the chlorine feeders and
accessories
The chlorinator room temperature controlled
Min. temp.: 70F (21C)
The chlorine supply area (> 50F = 10C) kept cooler
than the chlorinator
14

Design of Chlorination System (3)

Design and Safety Consideration (2)
The sun not permitted to shine directly on the cylinders
Heat never applied directly to the cylinders
The chlorine storage and feed system protected from fire

hazards
A clear viewing window provided for viewing the
chlorination equipment
Blower control and gas masks located at the room entrance
Wrought iron piping provided for liquid chlorine and chlorine
gas
Tough plastic piping provided for chlorine solutions
Due to a very high volume expansion coefficient of liquid
chlorine, sufficient air cushion or expansion chambers
15

Design of Chlorination System

Hypochlorite

More expensive, loss of strength in storage, difficult to

feed, safer than chlorine gas or liquid

Used in many large plants in urban areas
Sodium hypochlorite solution available in 1.5~15%
strength in 1,300~2,000 gal (4.9~7.6 m3) tanks and tank
cars
Stronger solutions decompose readily by exposure to light
and heat
High-test calcium hypochlorite: at least 70% available
chlorine. Available in 45- to 360-kg drums as power,
granules, or compressed tablets or pellets
Hypochlorites and solutions stored at cool and dry places
for a better shelf life
16

Chlorine Feed
Chlorine feed or injector system: essential because it

provides the required dosage at the point of application

Chlorinator: device that introduce chlorine gas to water
using liquid chlorine supplied in steel cylinders; more
economical than hypochlorinator when the supply source is
greater than 75 gpm

Hypochlorinator

Positive displacement chlorinator

17

Chlorine Feed System

Pressure injection
May pose risks of gas escaping
Normally used in small plants or in large facilities where safety

precautions are rigidly followed

Vacuum feed
Apply a specified vacuum to evaporate and move chlorine gas
from the supply source to the chlorinator where it is mixed
with water and carried to the point of application;
Must have enough amount of water to:
Maintain chlorine concentration in the solution below a
given concentration (3,500 mg/L)
Create required amount of vacuum in the line to the
chlorinator and in all of the components of the chlorinator
system.
18

Vacuum Chlorine Feed

19

Mixing and Contact

Essential to rapidly mix chlorine solution into wastewater followed by

a quiescent contact period for effective disinfection

Chlorine solution injected through a diffuser system
Then, mixed rapidly by:
Mechanical means
Baffle arrangement
Hydraulic jump

Chlorine contact chamber: to provide the contact time necessary for

the disinfecting compound to reduce the number of organisms to

acceptable levels; 15~30 min. contact time; 15 min. at peak flow
Design: minimize short circuiting and dead spaces, maximize mixing
for better disinfection, and reduce settling of solids in the basin
How? Plug-flow reactor configuration

Chlorination solids settling deposited sludge chlorine demand

and anaerobic organism growth gas solids rise and thus

solids in the effluent

20

Chlorine Dose
Chlorine Demand = Applied Chlorine Dose Chlorine

Residual
Typically 5~20 mg/L for secondary clarifier effluent

Example
Assume that a chlorinator is set to feed 834 lbs/day, flow
rate is 10 MGD, and the chlorine as measured after 15
minutes contact is 0.5 mg/L.
834 lbs/day mg/L
10 mg/L
10 MGD 8.34 lbs/Mgal
Chlorine dose: 10.0 mg/L
Chlorine residual: 0.5 mg/L
Chlorine demand: 9.5 mg/L

Dechlorination
It is necessary to dechlorinate, or remove chlorine

from a wastewater by the addition of dechlorinating

agents.
The most common chemicals used for dechlorination
are sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfate, sodium sulfite,
sodium thiosulfate and activated carbon.
The chemical equivalents required for dechlorination
can be calculated; however, laboratory experiments
should be used to help to define the required dose.

22

A Compound-Loop Control System

for Chlorination with Liquid Chlorine
and Dechlorination with Sulfur Dioxide

23

UV Disinfection
Transfers electromagnetic energy from a mercury

arc lamp to an organisms genetic material (DNA

and RNA) destroys the cells ability to reproduce
400 nm

Radio IR

Visible
Light

40 nm

UV

X-Rays

UV-A UV-B UV-C Vacuum

UV

300 nm

200 nm

Germicidal Range (250~270 nm)

24

Prevention of Cell Reproduction by UV

Thymine Dimerization...,
O

HN

CH3 H3C

NH

O
CH3 H3C

HN

NH

+
O

CH

HC

thymine

thymine

N
H

thymine dimer

25

Why UV?

26

Number of UV Wastewater Facilities

UV Usage in the U.S.

Over 20% of U.S. Wastewater Treatment
Plants now use UV Disinfection

27

UV Installations in the U.S.

Over 4300 Installations:
Very Small Plants (< 1 MGD)
2300 installations treating 580 MGD
Small Plants (1 ~ 5 MGD)
1160 installations treating 2.6 BGD
Medium Plants (5 ~ 25 MGD)
750 installations treating 8 BGD
Large Plants (> 25 MGD)
125 installations treating 5.5 BGD
Very Large Plants (> 100 MGD)
22 installations treating 3.8 BGD

28

Advantages
Effective at inactivating most viruses, spores, and

cysts
A physical process rather than a chemical
disinfectant, which eliminates the need to generate,
handle, transport, or store toxic/hazardous or
corrosive chemicals
No residual effect that can be harmful to humans or
aquatic life
User-friendly for operators
A shorter contact time when compared with other
disinfectants (approximately 20 to 30 seconds with
low-pressure lamps)
UV disinfection equipment less space required than
other methods
29

Disadvantages
At low dosage, not effectively inactivate some

viruses, spores, and cysts

Organisms sometimes capable of repairing and
reversing the destructive effects of UV through a
"repair mechanism," known as photo reactivation,
or in the absence of light known as "dark repair"
A preventive maintenance program necessary to
control fouling of tubes
Ineffective for wastewater with high turbidity and
total suspended solids (TSS)
UV disinfection with low-pressure lamps as
effective for secondary effluent with TSS levels
above 30 mg/L
Not as cost-effective as chlorination but
competitive when chlorination/dechlorination is
used and fire codes are met.
30

UV Disinfection
Goal: Meet disinfection target
Absolute (e.g., 200 FC/100 mL)
Relative (e.g., 4 log virus)

Step 1: How much UV dose to meet target?

Collimated beam dose-response

Step 2: How much UV equipment?

Function (Flow, UVT, Power of Lamps)
Function (UV Reactor Design)

Ultra-violet Transmittance (UVT)

A measurement of the ability of UV radiation to pass through

a fluid of a fixed path length (i.e., 1 cm)

Typically reported as: %T at 254 nm

31

UV in Normal Wastewater - Step 1

UV Dose (Collimated Beam)
UV Lamp

Sample
Stirrer

32

UV in Normal Wastewater - Step 1

UV Dose (Dose-Response Curve)
Log Survival Microbes

0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
-6.0
0

20

40

60

80

100

UV Dose (I x t, C x t, mJ/cm )
33

UV in Normal Wastewater - Step 1

UV Dose (Absolute Target)

34

UV in Normal Wastewater - Step 1

UV Dose (Relative Target)

Dose Per Log Reduction

1/Slope = 10 mJ/cm2/log

35

UV in Normal Wastewater - Step 2

Amount of UV Equipment

RED: Reduction Equivalent Dose

Drinking water RED: 40 mJ/cm2; Wastewater RED: 15~30 mJ/cm2
2
Water reuse RED: 100 mJ/cm2; Residential RED: 16 or 40 mJ/cm
36

UV in Normal Wastewater - Step 2

Amount of UV Equipment
60% UVT
80% Power

UV Dose (mJ/cm )

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

10

20

30

40

Flow (gpm/Lamp)
37

UV in Low Quality Wastewater

What is the Impact on Disinfection?
High Solids: How much dose?
Low UVT: How much equipment?
Fouling Potential: Cleaning system?

38

Impact 2: Low UVT

100

100

60

60
36

1 cm

2 cm
39

Impact 2: Low UVT

100

100

40

40

16
1 cm

2 cm
40

Impact 2: Low UVT

Dark Zones Between Lamps

High UVT

Low UVT
41

UV for Low Quality Wastewater

[Primary Treated Wastewater and
Combined Sewer Overflows (CSO)]
Solution: Eliminate Dark Zones
Use narrow lamp spacing (headloss

constraints)
Use brighter lamps
Mix flow between lamps
42

Eliminate Dark Zones - Option 1

Narrow Spacing (Headloss)

Low UVT
Wide Spacing

Low UVT
Narrow Spacing
43

Eliminate Dark Zones - Option 2

Use Brighter Lamps
Low Pressure/Amalgam
Relatively low intensity

Medium Pressure
Relatively high intensity

44

Eliminate Dark Zones - Option 2

Use Brighter Lamps

Low UVT
Normal Lamps

Low UVT
High Power Lamps
45

Eliminate Dark Zones - Option 3

Mix Flow Between Lamps

46

Eliminate Dark Zones - Option 3

Mix Flow Between Lamps

47

Eliminate Dark Zones - Option 3

Mix Flow Between Lamps

48

Impact 3: Fouling and Cleaning (2)

50

Relative Sleeve UVT (%)

Impact 3: Fouling and Cleaning (3)

100
Physical-Chemical

80
60
40
Physical

20

No Wipe

0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

Time (h)

51

Section Criteria
Hydraulic properties of the reactor:
A uniform flow with enough axial motion (radial
mixing) to maximize exposure to UV radiation
Path that an organism takes in the reactor
Minimization of short-circuiting and/or dead zones,
which can result in inefficient use of power and reduced
contact time
Intensity of the UV radiation affected by:
Age of the lamps
Lamp fouling
Configuration and placement of lamps in the reactor
Wastewater characteristics:
Flow rate
Suspended and colloidal solids
Initial bacterial density
Other physical and chemical parameters
52

Factors Affecting UV Performance

Effects on UV disinfection
Ammonia
Minor effect, if any
Nitrite & nitrate
Minor effect, if any
BOD
Minor effect, if any. Humic and/or
unsaturated compounds
Hardness
Affects solubility of metals that can
absorb UV lights
Humic materials & iron High absorbency of UV
pH
Affects solubility of metals and
carbonates
TSS
Absorbs UV radiation and shields
Characteristics

embedded bacteria
53

Basic Components (1)

UV dose (Fluence) (mJ/cm2)
UV intensity (Watts/cm2) Exposure duration (seconds)
Range: 15~50 mWsec/cm2

Type of lamp: determined based on life cycle analysis

(LCA)
Low Pressure (LP) ( 0.5 MGD)
LP High Output (LPHO) (most flow rates)
Medium Pressure (MP) (less lamps than LPHO)

Type of sensor
Primary means to monitor the performance; lamps 6~16

months
54

Basic Components (2)

UV transmittance
Secondary effluent 50~65%
Tertiary effluent 65~80%
System configuration based on
Ease of lamp replacement and cleaning
# of treatment trains
Level of redundancy required
Hydraulic head loss
Available space

UV Transmission Scale:

20% - 50%

50% - 70%

Primary Effluent
Blended Effluent
Lagoons
CSO, SSO

> 70%

Secondary Effluent
Filtered Effluent
WW Reuse
Fixed Film Effluent

Post-membrane
High-level reuse
Contaminant
destruction

55

UV Dose (Reduction Equivalent

Dose)
US wastewater industry standard
15~30 mW-sec/cm2 (mJ/cm2)

US reuse standard
50~100 mW-sec/cm2

Drinking water standard

40 mW-sec/cm2

Residential application
16 or 40 mW-sec/cm2

56

General Relationships
Intensity: Distance from the source intensity
Flow rate detention time dose acquired by

water

Turbidity inhibits ultraviolet disinfection only when

organisms are lodged within the particles or when

the particles themselves are UV-absorbers.
Otherwise turbidity is not a hindrance to
disinfection.

Water depth water thickness attenuation

of light dose reaching water at bottom tube

(negative quality)

57

Bulb Types
LP/Low
Intensity
Typical energy use
60 W
% output at 253.7 nm
88%
Ozone production
None
Susceptibility to cooling
Yes
Benefits
Efficiency
(lower energy
requirements)
Characteristic

MP/Medium
intensity
5,000W
44%
Possibly
No
Smaller, less
maintenance, use
with poor quality
water

58

Comparison of Disinfection Processes

Giadia
Crypto
Virus
Residual
Organic DBPs
Brominated DBPs
Safety risk
Complexity
Capital cost
O&M cost

UV

Cl2 gas

NaOCl

On-site
HOCl
generation

Excel.
Excel.
Excel.
None
None
None
Low
Low
Medium
Medium

Fair
Poor
Good
Good
High
High
High
Medium
Medium
Low

Fair
Poor
Good
Good
High
High
Low
Medium
Medium
Low

Fair
Poor
Good
Good
High
High
Low
Medium
Medium
Low

Ozone

ClO2

Chloramines

Excel.
Good
Excel.
None
Low
High
Medium
High
High
High

Excel.
Excel.
Very good
Fair
Low
None
Medium
High
Medium
Medium

Poor
Poor
Fair
Excel.
Low
None
Low
Medium
Medium
Low

59

System Configuration (1)

Contact types: A series of mercury lamps, enclosed in quart sleeves

to decrease cooling effects of wastewater, submerged in water

60

Contact Type Vertical

61

System Configuration (2)

Non-contact type: UV lamps suspended outside a

transparent conduit, which carries wastewater to be

treated. Rare

A ballast, or control box, engenders starting voltage for

the lamps and maintains continuous current

Flap gates, or weirs, control level of water being

treated

Water runs perpendicular or parallel to lamps

Mechanical cleaners, ultrasonic cleaners, other self-

cleaners

Alarm systems that indicate minor and major failures

62

General O&M
Lamp changes: once every year or if light

transmission efficiency has decreased to 70%

All surfaces between UV radiation and water
should be clean; chemical treatment use of citric
acid or mild vinegar solutions.
Quarts sleeves should be wiped down every 6
months with soapy solution; replace every 5 to 8
years
No finger print left on glass
Use of UV system and a pump on same electrical
line can mar the life of UV lamp and ballast
63

Jefferson County, AL (200 FC/100 mL)

Valley Creek WWTP: 600 MGD, 65% UVT secondary effluent
Village Creek WWTP: 360 MGD, 50% UVT SSO effluent

64

UV for Low Quality Water

Determine proper UV dose requirement (impact of high

solids)
Collimated beam dose-response
Ensure proper reactor design (impact of low UVT,
fouling)
Technology & designs available
Test/pilot reactor designs (disinfection, headloss,
cleaning)
UV is working on low quality wastewater today: The
Future is Now
65

Which of the following terms is

defined as killing or
inactivating pathogenic
organisms in wastewater?
A. Sterilization
B. Pasteurization
C. Disinfection
D. Deactivation

66

Which of the following

could be used to disinfect
wastewater?
A. Chlorination
B. UV
C. Ozone
D. All of the above

67

One volume of liquid chlorine gas will

expand, at room temperature and
pressure, to occupy how many
volumes of gas?
A. 16 volumes
B. 46 volumes
C. 460 volumes
D. 960 volumes

68

As the wastewater temperature

increases, the disinfection
action of chlorine will
A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. Double
D. Indeterminate as it also depends on the pH

69

Chlorine ton cylinders at room

temperature will deliver gas at
a maximum rate of
150 lb cylinders
A. 10 lb/day
B. 25 lb/day
C. 40 lb/day
D. 150 lb/day

Ton containers
100 lb/day
250 lb/day
450 lb/day
2,000 lb/day
70

Which of the following is the

correct wavelength of UV for
disinfection?
A. 253.7 nm
B. 372.5 nm
C. 537.2 nm
D. 725.3 nm

71