ALGEBRAIC SYSTEMS

Binary Operation
Suppose G is a nonempty set. Operations on the
elements of a set is a rule, which combines two
elements of the set to obtain a third of the set.
When on performing this operation on any two
elements of the set, we obtain a unique element
belonging to the same set, then this operation is
called binary operation, on the set.
Ex. (N,+)
Thus * will be a binary operation on G, iff
a G , b G a * b G , a, b G
where

a * b is unique.

Algebraic structure
A non empty set G equipped with one or more
binary operation is called an algebraic structure.
Groupoid - Groupoid is the simplest algebraic
structure using only one composition(G,*).
Semigroup
A non empty set G equipped with an associative
binary operation ( say ).
Represented by (G ,)
Examples : ( I, + )

Monoid
a semi group (G ,) is said to be a monoid if G
possess identity element with respect to *.
Example :
( I, + ) with e = 0,
( P(S), ) with e =
Every monoid is a semigroup but every semigroup
may not be a monoid.

Group
a set of elements or numbers with some
operation whose result is also in the set (closure)
obeys:
associative law:(a.b).c = a.(b.c)
has identity e: e.a = a.e = a
has inverse a-1: a.a-1 = e
if commutative a.b = b.a
then forms an abelian group

Group
e.g.
G1 = { the set of integers, arithmetic addition }
S = , - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2,
( S , )
Binary Op. ? yes,

addition, +

a + b S ? yes, Closure

a + b + c = a + b + c ?

yes, Associativ e

a + e = a ? yes, e = 0
a + a 0 ? yes, has Inverse Element
-1

Group Counter-Example

G { the set of integers, multiplica tion }

2
(Z ,)
binary op ? yes,
multiplica tion,
a b S ? yes, Closure

a b c = a b c ?

yes, Associativ e
a e = a ? yes, e = 1

a a -1 1 ? No, there is no a -1for which

this is true, not a group

Properties of Groups
The identity element is unique.
The inverse of each element is unique.
If inverse of a is a-1, then the inverse of a-1 is a
i.e., (a-1)-1 = a.
The inverse of the product of two elements of a
group is the product of the inverses taken in the
reverse order i.e., (ab)-1 = b-1a-1
Cancellation laws hold i.e.,
ab = ac b = c
( Left cancellation law )
ba = ca b = c
( right cancellation law )

Properties of Groups
The identity element in a group is unique.
Let e,e two identity elements of Group (G,)
then ee = e if e is identity.
and ee = e if e is identity.
but ee is unique element of G
Hence e = e

Group

Abelian group : a group (G ,) is abelian

if is commutative.
Example: ( I , ) where I is the set of
integers and operation is defined as
ab = a+b-2 for all a,b in I
i. aI, bI a+b-2I so I is closed w.r.t.
ii. (ab)c = a (b c)
(Associative)
(ab)c = (a+b-2)c = (a+b2)+c-2 =a+b+c-4
a(bc) =a (b+c-2)=a+(b+c-2)-2 = a+b+c-4

Group Example
iii. Identity
ea = a
e+a-2 = a e = 2I for all a in I
iv. Inverse
If aI then bI will be the inverse of a if
ab = e= ba
a+b-2 =2 b= -a+4 I

Is I an abelian group

Homomorphism of semigroups

If ( G , ) and ( G , ) be two
semigroups,a mapping f: GG is called a
semigroup homomorphism or a
homomorphism if
f (ab) = f(a) f(b)

Example
Let f : ( R, + ) ( R+ ,x ) is defined as
f(x) = ex for all x in R Where
R set of real numbers and
R+ set of positive real numbers

x, y R then f(x) = ex and f(y) = ey

f (x+y) = ex+y = ex x ey = f(x) x f(y)
So f is a homomorphism.

ORDER
Order of an element of a group
Let (G ,) be a group, a G and e is
identity .Order of an element a is the least
positive integer n such that
aa a a a (n times) = e(identity)
or
an = e if is x
na = e if is +

Addition and Multiplication modulo

Addition modulo n
a+nb = r, n r 0
r = least nonnegative remainder when a+b is
divided by n.
example : 12+37 = 1, 21+1130= 7
Multiplication modulo m
amb = r, m r 0
r = least nonnegative remainder when ab
is divided by m.
Example: 1258 = 1, 1375 = 2

Modulo 8 Example
composition table for addition modulo 8

Modulo 5 Example
composition table for multiplication modulo 5

Modulo 8 Example
composition table for addition modulo 8
Exercise 1. Write the composition table for
addition modulo 6.
Exercise 2.Show that the set {1,3,4,5,9} is
an abelian group under multiplication
modulo 11 as composition.

Cyclic Group
A group is cyclic if every element is a
power of some fixed element
b = ak
group

for some a and every b in

a is said to be a generator of the group

e.g. Let G={1,-1,i,-i} is a group with respect to the binary

operation .Then
G is a cyclic group. Find the
generators of a group G.
Ans. i and i.

e.g. Show that ({1,2,3,4,5,6},7 ) is cyclic. How many

generators are there ?

Cyclic Group
Every cyclic group is an abelian group.
If a finite group of order n contains an
element of order n, the group must be
cyclic.

RING
A ring is a mathematical system (R,+,.) consisting of a
nonempty set R, with two binary operations denoted
by (+) and (.) respectively, satisfying the following
postulates.
R1- (R,+) is an abelian group.
R2- (R,.) is semi group.
R3- Semi group operation (.) is distributive over the
group operation(+).
a.(b+c) = a.b + a.c
EXAMPLE:( I,+,.),(R,+,.)

FIELD
The system (F,+,.) is a field if,
F1- (F,+) is an abelian group.
F2-

(F0,.) is an abelian group.

F3-

Multiplication is distributive w.r.t addition.

OR
A commutative ring with unity is called a field if it
contains multiplicative inverse of every non-zero
element.
Ex. The systems (Q,+,.), (R,+,.), (C,+,.) are all fields.