Diploma in Aviation Medicine:

Human Performance
Revision
June 11

Objectives of Aviation Psychology

to enhance flight safety

to improve effectiveness

Why is There Interest in Human Performance in Aviation?

Aviation is a safety-critical operation

Aircrew are subjected to many sources of stress

High levels of human performance must be achieved (e.g., fast jet pilots)
Human error is heavily implicated in aviation accidents

Main fatal accident causes in 1994

Accident cause
Air crew error
Controlled Flight into Terrain
Weather
Loss of Control
Engine Failure/Fire
Structural/System Failure

Accidents (%) Fatalities (%)

65
37
30
14
16
11

68
43
24
34
7
13

The Human in the Aviation System

Equipment
& tasks

Environment

Human
operator

Other
personnel

Content of Human Performance Module

General Principles
Introduction to Human Performance Module
Fundamentals of Human Performance
Individual Differences
Social Psychology and Aviation
A small amount of basic theory to help you to
interpret the practical studies

Content of Human Performance Module

New this year!

An early session on human error
to provide a context for the module

Content of Human Performance Module

Personal & Environmental Factors

Stress & Workload in Aviation I
Stress & Workload in Aviation II
Perceptual Issues in Aviation
Situation Awareness
Selection of Aviation Personnel

Content of Human Performance Module

Training and Simulation
Simulation and Training
Fundamentals of CRM Training
Practical Aspects of CRM & LOFT

Content of Human Performance Module

Systems Factors
Aviation Ergonomics I
Aviation Ergonomics II

Content of Human Performance Module

The Human Factor in Aviation Accidents
Seminar: Flight Safety
Prof Peter Jorna, former head of division at NLR
Amsterdam

Also an accident module at Henlow, providing a context

for this module
See also lectures on Sleep, Fatigue and Shift-Working

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics

Equipment
& tasks

Environment

Human
operator

Selection

Individual
Differences

Other
personnel

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics

Ergonomics

Equipment
& tasks

Environment

Workload
Technical
Training

Human
operator

Other
personnel

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics

Equipment
& tasks

Environment
Perception

Human
operator

Other
personnel

Stress

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics

Equipment
& tasks

Environment

Human
operator
CRM Training

Other
personnel

The Human in the Aviation System: Relevance of Module Topics

Equipment
& tasks

Environment

Situation
Human
Awareness
operator
and Human
Error encompass
all these interactions
Other
personnel

Human Information Processing

Cognition
Processes involved in the input, storage, transformation, and
output of information by humans
Main topics:
Memory
Attention
Skills

Memory
Three major memory systems:

Sensory memory

Short-term memory

Long-term memory

Summary of properties of memory systems (inferred from classic

experiments on memory) learn this!
Sensory

Short-term

Long-term

Capacity

High

72 chunks

no known
limit

Duration

1 sec

10-15 sec

permanent?

Type of storage

Physical
characteristics

acoustic

semantic

Nature of retrieval

parallel

serial

hierarchy?

Nature of forgetting

decay/maskinginterference

failure of
retrieval

Attention

Selective attention:
attend to one of several competing sources of
information
Divided attention:
attempt to attend to more than one information source
or task at the same time

Shadowing task
Can detect physical changes on the unattended channel, but not semantic content
Dichotic listening task
Performance very poor
Subjects tended to organise their recall by ear, not by recency of presentation
Led Broadbent to propose Filter Theory. But, later shown that
subjects tend to hear their own name on the unattended channel
subjects tend to follow the message, even if it switches ears
hence, there is semantic processing on the unattended channel
However, we can assume that recognition of unattended information is
less likely than recognition of attended material
Make sure that you understand this!

Divided attention

Key question:
Does man have a single information-processing channel
(all tasks compete for the same resources or capacity)
or
specialised resources for particular types of activity?
(tasks performed concurrently compete only if they draw upon
the same resources)

Some support for the multiple resource theory: often, the degree of
task interference depends upon the similarity of the tasks
But: sometimes tasks that are dissimilar are found to interfere
Baddeleys working memory model
is a compromise between extreme
single-channel and multiple-resource
views

Visuo-spatial
scratchpad

Central Executive

Articulatory loop

Skills (obviously relevant to training lectures!)

Characteristics
typically a sequence of activities
goal-directed behaviour
use of feedback
Skill acquisition
Three phases are sometimes distinguished:
Early or cognitive phase
Intermediate or associative phase
Final or autonomous phase
In the final phase, behaviour becomes automatic; delegated to the
control of motor programs that do not require conscious attention
and do not place heavy demands for mental resources
Many everyday errors (actions not as planned) are associated with
overlearned behaviour
These errors involve well-practised behaviour, but are inappropriate
Some aircrew errors are of this type

Issues in skill acquisition

Whole versus part learning

Massed versus spaced learning

Transfer of training very important aspect of simulator-based training

Individual Differences

Two major types of individual difference covered:

Intelligence/ability/aptitude

Personality

Factor Analysis:
make sure that you have a good intuitive
grasp of this: you dont need to know the underlying
mathematics!

Basic psychometric criteria

Intelligence/ability/aptitude These are the key issues

Intelligence: Innate or learned?

Intelligence: How many abilities?

There is evidence for a general ability factor

However, specific abilities also appear to exist

Intelligence: The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Aptitudes

Test Fairness

Intelligence: Are IQ tests valid?

Personality key issues

Types of personality test:

Interview (not reliable)
Projective tests
Personality questionnaires
(discussed examples of each)

Is there a pilot personality?

Does personality influence success in flying training?

Is there an accident-prone personality?

Social Psychology

Types of social influence (can use this info for CRM questions)
Compliance: behaviour consistent with direct request
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
door-in-the-face phenomenon
Conformity: behaviour consistent with group norms
size of group (up to about four)
attractiveness and status of group members
Informational influence (trusting others judgements) and normative
influence (seeking group acceptance)
Obedience to authority
Milgram experiment
62.5% of the 40 subjects administered shocks to the highest level
factors affecting obedience, such as status of experimenter,
proximity to student
Think about how this applies to small groups of interest to us,
such as flight crew or teams of maintenance engineers

Group Decision Making: Polarisation

Was thought that group decision making was more risky

than individual DM (risky shift) but became apparent
that there is a shift in the direction of the pole that, on
average, the group favours as individuals (polarisation)

Stoners experiments

Normative and informational influences produce group

polarisation

Group Decision Making: Groupthink

Work of Janis. Based on real-life examples such as Bay of Pigs (or, more
recently, UK MPs expenses!)
Desire for consensus overrides group members motivation to assess risk
and consider alternative courses of action
Groupthink occurs under the following conditions:

Symptoms include

High cohesiveness of the group

Uncertainty of approval
Insulation of the group
Directive leadership
High stress situations
Illusion of invulnerability
Stereotypes of out-group
Mindguards
Direct pressure on dissenters
Collective rationalisation

Effects on decision making:

Incomplete survey of alternatives

Incomplete survey of objectives
Incomplete analysis of risks associated with course of action
No contingency plans

Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)

Work of Jensen: decision error is cause of most fatal aviation accidents;

argued that decision making can be improved through training

Decisions have two components:

Hazardous attitudes:

Anti-authority
Resignation
Impulsivity
Invulnerability
Macho

ADM courses aim to provide:

Rational judgement (Headwork)

Motivational judgement (Attitudes)

Ability to recognise hazardous attitudes

Knowledge of effects of these attitudes
Skills to overcome the effects

Methods

Self assessment tools

Examination of case studies
Practical Exercises

Perceptual Issues in Aviation

Perception is the process of acquiring, selecting, and organising

sensory information
The most important perceptual processes for aviation are those associated
with vision and hearing
1

The ear and the auditory system

balance and the vestibular system
localisation of sound and identification of source
2
The visual system
bottom-up processing
top-down processing
cues to depth perception

The ear and the auditory system

The ear serves two main functions:

Balance. The vestibular system of the inner ear

detects angular and linear accelerations of the head
Hearing. To detect sounds, to determine the location
of their sources and to recognise the identity of these
sources

Balance and the vestibular system

Practical implications

With regard to the otolith, the weight force in a climbing aircraft

operates similarly to the resultant force in an accelerating aircraft.
Without visual feedback, pilots can mistake acceleration for pitch.
Ascending
aircraft

Accelerating aircraft

Weight force

Inertia force

Resultant

The situation is aggravated if the pilot attempts to compensate for an

incorrect percept. Although feedback from the vestibular system can
be compelling, a pilot needs to learn to trust instrumentation.

Auditory perception

Localisation of sound

Interaural differences:
Intensity. Most suited to localising
high frequencies
Time/phase. Most suited to
localising low frequencies.

Sounds emanating from directly in front and behind

the head produce the same interaural differences.

Auditory perception

Practical implications
Cockpit design
The cockpit relies heavily on the presentation of
visual information. Adoption of auditory signals may
reduce the workload experienced by pilots in the
visual domain.
Localisation of auditory warnings
Similar sounding warnings emanating from similar
areas may cause confusion
Adoption of white noise bursts within ambulance
sirens

Visual perception

What you see is what you get?

Visual modality is obviously extremely important in aviation. But can we always trust
our eyes?
The visual scene is captured by the eye as a poor quality, two-dimensional
representation
What is perceived is determined by:
Bottom-up processes. The percept of a stimulus is determined by features of the
stimulus as processed by the visual cortex
Top-down processes. The interpretation (consciously or not) of a stimulus can be
determined by our experience and knowledge
Important distinction!

Visual perception

Top-down processes
If the percept is generated
deterministically (bottom-up
processing) from the visual
cortex . . .
Necker cube

Thirteen or B?

. . . how can one distal (real

world) stimulus produce two
percepts?

By a mental model: Our own

experience and expectations
help to determine what we see
(top-down processing)
Lincoln or women?

Old or young women?

Visual perception

Depth perception: learn this!

Convergence
of the eyes.
Stereopsis
disparity between the
two images.
Accommodation
of the lens.
Retinal versus actual size
for known objects.
Overlap
a near object will
occlude the view of a
far object.

Position in visual field

objects nearer the horizon
are farther away.
Aerial Perspective
clarity of objects is reduced
at distance.
Relative motion
angular velocity greater for
near objects.
All require both bottom-up & top-down
processing.

How we perceive depth

Position in visual field

Occlusion

Surfaces will have a finer texture with

distance

Retinal versus actual size

Relative motion

Binocular disparity between the two

images

a near object will occlude the view of a

far object

Perceptual constancy

Stereopsis

objects nearer the horizon are farther

away

Textual Gradient

angular velocity greater for near objects

Convergence

of the eyes

44

Know this

All require both bottom-up & top-down

processing.

Visual perception

Some perceptual problems

Featureless surfaces, or those with textures of unknown
sizes, can produce inaccurate judgements of size.
Sea.
Beehives for caravans.

Can produce an inaccurate mental model of the situation

which overrides the correct perception of the instruments.
Top-down influences.
Exacerbated by fatigue and workload.

Visual perception: know the practical implications (next few slides)

Practical implications: visual approach

Pilots may have to visually judge the glide slope without
any cues other than those from the surface of the world.
The aspect (retinal shape) of the runway is not very useful.

However, the visual touchdown point is a constant and

unchanging cue, relative to the horizon.
If the horizon cannot be seen, its location must be implied,
The runways sides meet at the horizon.
The terrains texture gradients.
The relative position of the aircrafts canopy.

Visual perception

Practical implications: visual approach (2)

HORIZON
B
Visual
touchdown
point
A

Angle of Approach

A=B

Visual perception

Practical implications: visual approach (3)

Visual
impact
point

Actual
touchdown
point

= angle of

approach

Visual perception

Practical implications: mid-air collisions

Identification of a colliding aircraft is confounded by;

Constant relative bearing.

Unique characteristic.
Periphery of retina detects sensitive to movement.
Non-linear increase in retinal size.
Retinal image doubles with each halving of closure
distance.
Uneven visual acuity across the retina.
Maximal acuity at the fovea.
Detection only if pilot is looking directly at it.
Implications for visual scanning to acquire proximal
image on the fovea.

Visual perception

Practical implications: mid-air collisions (2)

Impact

Aircraft A

aring
e
B
ive
t
a
l
e
R

Aircraft B

Visual perception

Practical implications: mid-air collisions (3)

3 secs / 0.5 degree

1.5 secs / 1 degree

0.1 secs / VERY BIG

Perception

Summary
Bottom-up (information from our senses) and top-down (expectations
and experiences) processes affect the way we perceive the world.
The resultant perception is often not a true reflection of the external
world.
This can be advantageous when it is in our interest for differences
between features in the external world to be exaggerated but potentially
catastrophic when perceptual illusions lead us to take inappropriate
behaviour.

Ergonomics

Why Ergonomics? Murrell

The HSI Framework seven domains

Manpower
Personnel
Training
Human Factors Engineering (aka Ergonomics)
Workplace design
Anthropometry
Critical Dimensions

Some people adopt a strict

System Safety
definition of ergonomics;
Health Hazards
others treat all of HSI as
Social & Organisational
being within the scope of
ergonomics. You would not
be penalised for adopting
the latter
definition!
HSI often called Human Factors Integration (HFI)
HFI
is really

the process by which HSI is applied to equipment procurement

Tragic consequences

USS Vincennes
Kegworth
Chernobyl
Three Mile Island

Herald of Free Enterprise

HSI Domains KNOW THESE

Manpower: numbers of personnel required to operate, maintain, sustain, & train to
deliver capability (e.g. aircrew complement)
Personnel: cognitive/physical capabilities required to train for, operate, maintain, sustain
system
Training: instruction/education/ training to provide job skills, knowledge, values, and
attitudes (different methods summarised)
Human Factors Engineering (aka Ergonomics)
Workplace design
Anthropometry
Critical Dimensions
Systems Safety: applying HF expertise into programme Safety Management Process
Health hazards: conditions inherent in the system that may cause injury or reduce
performance or well-being
Social/organisational factors: applying techniques from organisational psychology,
social sciences, information science, and system of systems

Human Factors Engineering

(aka Ergonomics)
focused on the integration of human characteristics into system
definition, design, development, and evaluation to optimise
human machine performance under operational conditions.

Workplaces & interfaces

Cockpits
Workstations
Control rooms
Offices
Transport systems
Factories

Controls
Displays
Computer hardware
Computer software
Protective clothing
Other people

Physical workplace design

Inputs required from

EHFA
Task analysis
Link analysis
Allocation of function
Consider
Operational and environmental context
Human dimensions
Biomechanics and physiology

Functional factors
Task issues
Procedures
Critical elements

Responsibilities of organisation and individuals

Communications
Verbal
Non-verbal

Visual issues, such as sight lines

Flows of materials and personnel
Access and clearance
Normal
Emergency
Maintenance

Protection
Protective clothing & equipment
Barriers & guards

Anthropometry
Physical human dimensions
Population specific
Linear dimensions, for example:
Stature
Functional reach
Sitting height
Girth dimensions, for example:
Waist
Head circumference
Each dimension is expressed in terms of percentile

Be careful with percentiles when applying

anthropometry
Requirements often state must accommodate
the 5th percentile and the 95th percentile
human
But, these people do NOT exist!

Critical dimensions
Choose dimensions relevant to the workstation,
posture, and task
Sitting, standing, reach, fit, walking, crouching

5th percentile (smaller) dimensions considered for:

Seat adjustment, reach, vision, control movement, foot
rests

95th percentile (larger) dimensions considered for:

Seat adjustment, ingress, fit, access, clearance

Clothing
Clothing increases most dimensions through the
addition of bulk
e.g. stature, sitting height, chest depth, shoulder
breadth
But
Decreases the reach dimensions due to restriction of
movement
e.g. functional reach, vertical functional reach

When to integrate Human Factors

(Eurocontrol, 1999)

HSI Designed to Fit MoDs Acquisition Operating

Framework (AOF) Policy and Good Practice
CADMID cycle
System Readiness Levels
(DEF STAN 00-250. May 2008; http://www.aof.mod.uk ; www.hfidtc.com )

MoD JSP to be introduced later this year

Has now happened

Concept
Initial Gate

Assessment
Main Gate

Demonstration

Manufacture

In service

System Acceptance

Disposal

Summary
HSI covers all aspects of applied human factors
Human Factors Engineering is just one element that
needs to be integrated
HSI comprises tools and processes that fit with
systems engineering
HSI is widely applicable
Early inclusion is so much better than late
intervention

Stress and Workload

Types of stress

Life stress

less important than the others in this context, but be aware of it

Environmental stress
Cognitive stress

Life stress
Typically measured by questionnaire
Some correlation between questionnaire scores and illness
Some evidence that life stress is associated with accidents

Environmental
stress

Yerkes-Dodson law: Know this

Inverted U relation between arousal and performance
Performance declines as arousal increases or decreases
from the optimal level

Performance

The optimal arousal level is inversely related to task

difficulty

Difficult
task

Easy
task

Level of arousal

Know this
Fear
disruption of manual dexterity
disruption of secondary task performance
Noise
greater effect on difficult tasks
effect on error
increased attentional selectivity
effect on arousal (increases initially, then returns to normal)
Sleep loss
periodic lapses
decreased attentional selectivity
greater decrement on easy tasks
decreased arousal
Hypoxia
performance affected at over 10,000 ft
some evidence that task learning is affected at only 8,000 ft
Combined stressors
Sleep loss and noise each impair performance in isolation
However, noise improves the performance of sleep-deprived individuals

Patterns of effects of stressors (from Hockey)

Stressor

Arousal

Selectivity

Speed

Accuracy

STM

Noise
Anxiety
Incentive
Stimulants
Heat
Alcohol
Sleep loss
FatigueDepressants

+
+
+
+
+
-

+
+
+
+
+
+
-

0
0
+
+
0
-

+
0
-

+
0
0

+
0

increase
decrease
no effect

no need to memorise all this, but know that each stressor has its own
pattern of effects (cannot be explained by Yerkes-Dodson law)

Personality and stress

Know this
Two major dimensions
of personality are:
neuroticism (trait anxiety)
introversion-extraversion
Introverts are chronically over-aroused
Extraverts are chronically under-aroused
An arousing stressor (caffeine) has different effects on these individuals
Trait anxiety comprises worry and emotionality
Worry appears to interfere with task performance
Performance of high-anxiety subjects impaired under high workload
Evidence that personality influences success in flying training

Is the Yerkes-Dodson law adequate? Know this

For:
Can explain effects of combined stressors
Can explain some effects of personality
Can explain some effects of task difficulty (e.g. greater effect of sleep
loss on easy tasks)
Against:
Does not explain specific patterns of effects of individual stressors
Does not explain effects on attention
Too flexible: does not lead to firm predictions

Factors influencing the effects of stressors know this

Task difficulty
Task duration
Personality
Intensity of the stressor
Motivation
Importance of the task component
Presence of other stressors

Workload (cognitive stress) know this

Types of workload measure
Subjective
Example: NASA Task Load Index
easy to obtain
face valid
unobtrusive
subjects can readily quantify their
experience

difficult to establish which questions to

ask (dimensions of workload)
difficult to compare different types of task
ratings may not be correlated with task
performance

Physiological
Example: heart rate variability
do not disrupt performance
often provide continuous record

equipment may be physically intrusive

only indirect indication of performance

Performance-based
Primary task or secondary task
(e.g. time estimation)
provide direct measure of operator
performance

operator may invest more effort to

maintain primary-task performance
choice of secondary task is important

Effects of high workload

operator is prone to actions not as planned: unable to monitor
activity fully
increased attentional selectivity
may respond quickly but inaccurately
may shed some sub-tasks completely

Strategies for workload reduction [know this]

Change the task:
apply sound ergonomic principles
automate some functions
use new technologies
Change the operator
provide extensive training, to produce
motor programs (overlearning)
Personnel selection
for example, low trait anxiety may confer better
ability to cope with high task demands

Selection

Aims:
Deciding
What to measure
How to measure
Effectiveness of measures

Stages in Selection System

Specify selection criteria

Specify assessment
methods

Evaluate

(After Hunter & Burke 1995)

The Systems Approach to developing selection

processes.
1.

Job / Competency analysis

Identify Knowledge, Skills and
Attitudes (KSAs) required

2.

Use KSAs to identify appropriate

selection methods.

3.

Establish the reliability and fairness

of the process

4.

Validate

Job Analysis
Job
Requirements

Person
Requirements

Task
Competencies

Aptitudes
Prediction
Predictors

Person
Specification
(After Hunter & Burke 1995)

Criteria

Job
Description

Job Analysis

Aim Identify critical competencies required

for successful job

performance

Outputs What does the job holder do?

Inputs what skills, knowledge, abilities does the job holder need?

Result is a competency framework identifying critical success factors

associated with successful performance

Why?
1.
2.

To achieve the best possible prediction of job performance (put the

right people in the job)
Legal requirement test fairness

Types of Job Analysis

1. Hierarchical task analysis (Annett, Duncan et al 1971)
2. Functional Analysis (Fletcher 1991)
Techniques:
Critical incidence technique (CIT) (Flanagan 1954*)

Identify key roles and functions of job

Identify critical behaviours (related to success or failure)
Classify into similar behaviours
Summarise
Validate using other SME

Other techniques include Repertory grid

Classifying Aptitudes
Fleishmans Taxonomy of Skills
Abilities were classified into:
Cognitive:
Information processing and problem solving
Perceptual/spatial:
Attention and spatial orientation
Physical:
Flexibility, strength and stamina
Psychomotor:
Coordination and reaction time
NATO Study: Aptitude dimensions for military fast-jet pilots (Bydorf 1993)
Situational awareness: Perceptual closure + reaction time
Spatial orientation
Time sharing
Aggressiveness
Divided attention
Psychomotor coordination
Perceptual speed
Selective attention
Visualisation

Weighting Aptitudes

Determining priorities
Need to identify relative importance of aptitudes in job performance
DIF Analysis.

Ratings of:
Difficulty
Importance
Frequency

Choice of Measure
Personality Questionnaire
Group exercises

CV; Biodata
Interview

Ability

Psychometric tests
Work sample tests
Physical tests

Life
Experiences

Motivation

Performance

Temperament

Occupational Interest
Inventories;
Measures of
personal values
Interview

Types of aptitude measure

Paper & pencil measures

Computer-based testing: BARB (British Army); OASC (RAF); MicroPat

(AAC, RN, BA, Cathay); TASKOMAT (Commercial); BAT (USAF)
Ease of administration
Experimental testing
Dynamic measures possible
Measure processing capacity
Multi-tasks
Sophisticated measures such as response latency

Work sample
RAF Flying Grading

Simulation based
Advantages of CBT & work sample
Lower costs
Example: Canadian Automated Pilot Selection System

Biodata

Personality measures see other lectures

Effectiveness of measures

Evaluating Selection: Reliability and Validity

Reliability
Accuracy and stability of the test
Internal consistency reliability
Split-half reliability
Parallel forms
Test-retest reliability
Inter-rater reliability
Validity
Does the test really measure what it claims to measure?
Construct validity
Content validity
Predictive validity
See other lectures as well!

Error in allocation

Performance score

Cut-off score

True
Positives

False
Negatives

Pass Mark
True
Negatives

False
Positives

Predictor score

Performance score

Higher Correlation reduces error

TP
FN
FP
TN

Predictor score

EffectCut-off
of setting
Cut-off scores
score

Performance score

Cut-off score
2

Pass Mark

Predictor score

Average Correlation between competency ratings and job performance

Interpreting scores
Norm referenced most cognitive/ability tests
Self referenced Attitude/Personality measures
Criterion-referenced job skills

Validity of Different Methods

Selection Method

Mean Validity Co-efficient

Interview - Unstructured 1

.14

Interview - Structured 2

.35

Biodata 1

.37

References 3/1

.17 to .26

Cognitive ability testing 4/1

Personality testing 1/5

.25 to .53
.10 to .33

Work-sample tests 1

.54

Trainability tests 6

.46

Example: RAF Aircrew Selection

READY TO CHANGE
YOUR LIFE?
Your visit to OASC will take several days and
includes:
an initial briefing;
aptitude tests;
an aptitude test review;
the exercise phase;
an interview;
an occupational medical; and
fitness assessments
.

brochure)

(from OASC

Example: RAF Aircrew Selection

ADPO10369
EVOLUTION OF APTITUDE TESTING IN THE RAF
M. Bailey, RAF Cranwell

Before 1940: main method was

unstructured interview
About 50% pilot training failure rate at start of WWII
First set of Aircrew Selection Board tests included
Essay writing
Elementary maths
General intelligence

Early developments
need recognised for separate tests of skills and personality
shift to testing for specific roles (e.g. electromechanical coordination)
1944: With help from USAAF, series of objectives measures (e.g. 24 aptitude tests
for six aircrew categories) waste down from 48% to 25%
use of specially trained staff

Example: RAF Aircrew Selection

194484
Many more tests created but at the end of this period tests were not markedly different
Preliminary Flying School closed 1974 selection then relied purely on aptitude tests. For
various reasons validities dropped; for example, to .14 for training results
Second generation selection tests:
exploited increased computing capability:
at first, computerised versions of existing tests
later, new tests (based on abilities required, using Fleishmans system) Air
Traffic and Fighter Controller Test Battery produced
Nine weighted test scores used
Good predictive validity
Issues
No formal job analysis
Tests driven by theory and test availability
Hence 1990s:
Shift to domain-centred framework

Example: RAF Aircrew Selection

:

Simulation and Training

Information from

skill lecture
simulation and training lecture (technical skills)
CRM lecture (non-technical skills)
Human error lecture
etc

Key Issues
Training needs analysis (organisational, occupational, individual)
focus on Knowledge, Skills, Abilities/ Attitudes (KSAs)
Design of training programme

Develop Instruction by Objective

Select Instructional Strategy
Select/ organise element to be trained
Identify training aids
Organise materials/resources
Apply learning principles
Develop Evaluation Instruments

Implementation (who, where, when)

Evaluation (Reaction, Learning, Behaviour, Results)
Note DIF analysis (difficulty, importance, frequency) helps to decide whether not to train,
to train, or to over-train

Training issues (see also Human Information Processing lecture):

Massed versus distributed practice
Whole- versus part-task approach
Phases of learning
Feedback
Media and technology
Simulation very important in aviation, where the objective is to maximise the transfer of
learning from simulator to aircraft; fidelity is a key issue: do not need physical fidelity
(simulator does not need to resemble the aircraft), but functional fidelity is important
Internet-based increasingly important; can be accessed even in the field
Traditional still some role for classroom-based instruction

Situation Awareness

Topics
Definitions
Models
Theory
Metrics
Applications
Limitations

Why is Studying Situation Awareness

Important?
Hartel, Smith
and Prince
(1991)

Leading causal factor in a review of 175 aviation

mishaps

Endsley
(1994)

Major causal factor in 88% of accidents

associated with human error in a review of major
aircraft carrier accidents (1989-1992)

Woodhouse
and
Woodhouse
(1995)

Controlled Flight Into terrain (CFIT) accidents

killed 5000 people between 1978 and 1992. 74%
of these accidents were due to loss of flight crew
SA

Historical Origins of SA

SA popularised to describe the psychological

processes of:

Attention
Memory
Perception
Prediction
Pattern Matching

Mental Model
of the situation

Definitions of SA 1
Situation Awareness is . . .
. . . Knowledge of current and near-term disposition of both
friendly and enemy forces within a volume of airspace. McMillan
(1994)
. . . Ones ability to remain aware of everything that is happening at
the same time and to integrate that sense of awareness into what
one is doing at that moment. Haines & Flateau (1992)
. . . A pilots continuous perception of self and aircraft in
relation to the dynamic environment of flight, threats, and mission,
and the ability to forecast, then execute tasks based on that
perception. Hamilton (1987)

A Working Definition of SA
Situation Awareness is . . .
The perception of the elements in the environment within a
volume of time and space, the comprehension of their
meaning, and the projection of their status in the near
future Endsley (1988)
It is derived from the aircraft instrumentation, the out-thewindow view, and his or her senses
The quality of an operators SA is moderated by individual
capabilities, training, experience, objectives, and the ability
to respond to task workload
The term SA should only ever be applied to dynamic
environments

Summary know this

PROJECTION OF
FUTURE STATUS
COMPREHENSION
OF CURRENT SITUATION
PERCEPTION OF
ENVIRONMENT

When all is said and done we know that Situation

Awareness refers to an operators knowledge and
Understanding of the dynamic environment in
which he/she is operating
It is knowledge of the Big Picture
SA provides the basis for subsequent decision
making and performance in the operation of
complex, dynamic systems

A Model of SA

Level 3

Level 2

Level 1

PROJECTION OF
FUTURE STATUS

COMPREHENSION
OF CURRENT SITUATION
PERCEPTION OF
ENVIRONMENT
Endsley (1995)

Predict future
events / states
based on
understanding

Integrate with
task goals

Perceive
relevant
information

Endsleys Model

System Capability
Interface Design
Stress & Workload
Complexity
Automation

be aware of main elements

Task/System Factors

Feedback

SITUATION AWARENESS

State of the
Environment

Perception
of Elements
in Current
Situation

Comprehension
of Current
Situation

Projection
of Future
Status

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Performance of
Actions

Decision

Individual Factors

Goals & Objectives

Preconceptions
(Expectations)

Model of SA in dynamic decision

making (from Endsley, 2000)

Information Processing
Mechanisms
Longterm Memory
Stores

Automaticity

Abilities
Experience
Training

E.g. IQ
Cognitive Abilities
Conscientiousness
Experience
Personality
Training
Risk Taking

QinetiQs Model of The SA Process

Operator Traits

E.g. Frightened
Confused
High Workload
Fatigued
Aggressive

E.g. Temperature
Time Pressures
Day/night
Noise
Lethality

Environmental
State

Operator State
Real World/System
Information

Goals
Mission Goals
System Goals
Personal Goals

SA

Salience of info
Availability of info
Info complexity
Info quantity
Automation
Quality of HMI

The SA Process

The SA PROCESS

A series of complex cognitive

processes, including: Perception,
Working Memory, Pattern Matching,
Attention and Long Term Memory
NOT task or individual specific
Also referred to as Situation
Assessment (SAS)
Will be influenced by a multitude of
SA Factors

Factors Affecting the SA Process

Operator Traits

Environmental
State
Goals/Doctrine
/SOPs
Knowledge/
Information

E.g. IQ
Cognitive Abilities
Conscientiousness
Experience
Personality
Training
Risk Taking
E.g. Temperature
Time Pressures
Day/night
Noise
Lethality
Mission Goals
System Goals
Personal Goals
Directives
ROE
Commander Intent
Salience of info
Availability of info
Info complexity
Info quantity
Automation
Quality of HMI

These factors WILL BE

task AND individual
specific
Each factor will have
different weightings or
importance attached to it
for differing military
domains
The number of such
factors is vast

Know the main headings!

SA as a Product
The output of the SA
PROCESS will be a number of
Situation Models (or dynamic
mental models)
These situation models are
essentially knowledge and
understanding
The quality of a persons SA is
defined by the match between
these situation models and
reality

Real World
The difference between
these represents the
quality of ones SA

Situation Model

SA Elements
The person will have a
situation model for
each of the relevant SA
Information Domains
associated with a
specific task or job
Each SA information
domain will comprise a
number of SA Elements
Example: Endsley
(2001) illustrates this
for the task/job of
piloting a civil aviation
aircraft

Geographical SA
own aircraft
other aircraft
terrain features
airports
System SA
cities
system status
waypoints
functioning and settings
navigation
fixes
radio
position relative to
altimeter
Spatial/Temporal
SA
designated features

transponders
attitude
path
to desired location
flight modes and automation
altitude
runway
and taxiway assignments
deviations
from correct settings
heading
climb/descent
points
Environmental
SA
ATC
communications
present
velocity
weather
formations and movement
fuel
vertical velocity
temperature
impact
of degrades and settings
Gs
icing
on performance
flight path
ceilings
time
and
distance
available
on fuel
actual
values
relative
to assigned
fog
projected flight path
Turbulence,
windstime
projected landing
sun
visibility
IFR/VFR conditions
areas to avoid
flight safety
projected weather conditions

In Summary
The development and
maintenance of SA occurs
within an individuals head
The SA process (or SAS) is a
generic continuous
process/cycle that is impacted
upon by many factors
These factors will vary in their
importance and influence
depending upon the specific
task and the individual
undertaking that task

An individual will continuously

cycle through the SA process
for each SA Information
Domain, developing a situation
model for each
These situation models will be
task-specific
All situation models will be
continually updated and
revised as new information
becomes available or as the
factors affecting the SA
process change in importance
or in state

Team SA
SA can be applied to teams as
well as to individuals
Caution needed here, as SA
cannot be shared (it resides
inside the individuals head), but
information can be shared
We could be talking about:
1) The overlap in SA for the team
2) The SA of the team as moderated by
the primary decision maker
3) The collective SA of the entire team

Measuring Situation Awareness

SA has become a major design driver
Developing operator interfaces to enhance SA
Developing automated systems without resulting in a loss of
SA
Training techniques are designed to develop better SA

Development of SA metrics for evaluation purposes

Development of metrics since the late 1980s
Varying degrees of maturity / validation
Various forms of metrics

Subjective Vs Objective
Self-report Vs Third-Party rating
Simulator-based Vs Test flight

SA Metrics
Crew SA
SA Global Assessment technique (SAGAT)
Snapshots
SA Flight Training Evaluator (SAFTE)
China Lake SA Scale (CLSA)
SA Rating Technique (SART)
SA Supervisory Rating Form (SASRF)
Physiological Measures: Eye Activity

SA Metrics Summary
SA
SA
Level
Level

Crew
Crew SAGAT
SAGAT Snap
Snap SAFTE
SAFTE CLSA
CLSA SART
SART SASRF
SASRF
SA
Shots
SA
Shots

Perceive
Perceive
Environment
Environment
Comprehend
Comprehend
Current
Current
Situation
Situation
Project
Project
Future
Future
Status
Status

Eye
Eye
POG
POG

Know at least SAGAT/SART in a little detail, plus names of a few others

SA Metrics Summary
Most SA measures have been designed using a
particular SA definition, and with a specific application
in mind
Keep this in mind when selecting an SA measure

In practice, 2 of the SA measures outlined previously

are used far more than the others:
SART (subjective)
SAGAT (objective)

This is probably due to the extensive validity data that

accompanies these measures (we know they are
measuring SA)

So, of What Use is SA Research?

There are three main military applications for SA
research:
1) System/interface design, development, assessment and
evaluation

Operator interfaces designed to enhance SA

Automated systems must switch without losing operator
SA
2) Training operators to have better SA
3) Selecting operators who are predisposed to having high SA

Limitations of SA
Immature concept
Still much debate over definitions and measures
SA is a theoretical construct
Practical difficulties in measuring and predicting SA
For those who do not understand the theoretical basics of what SA is all about, there can
be an element of perceived circularity

Why did the aircraft

crash?
Because he
crashed

Because of lack
of pilot SA

How do we know there

was a lack of pilot SA?

Crew Resource Management (CRM)

CRM Training
Introduction
Need for effective interaction
Aviation accidents: most have human error component

CRM Evolution
Evolution of CRM to fifth-generation

CRM Training
Objectives of CRM
Knowledge, skills, attitudes to promote safe, efficient
operations:
Effective decision making
Good crew communication
Understanding/acceptance of role and responsibilities

CRM focuses broadly on training transportable teamwork

skills

CRM Training
Types of CRM course
Foundation Course
Wide range of topics covered
Focus on discussion and video

Continuation Courses
In depth coverage of topic areas
Skills practice (low fidelity)

LOFT/MOST

Skills practice (high fidelity)

Crew-centred debrief

CRM Training
Topics in typical CRM courses
Human information processing
Personality and attitudes
Communications
Teamwork structures
Teamwork behaviours
Leadership style
Decision making
Stress management
Human error
Situation awareness
Automation on the flight deck
Fatigue and workload
Case studies & research findings
Be able to list the main topics

CRM Training
Leadership issues
Effects of captains attitudes
Authority Gradient

CRM Training
Communication
US ASRS: most accidents involved failure of information transfer
Low-error crews demonstrate different patterns of comms

Communication skills know them!

Inquiry
Advocacy
Listening
Conflict resolution
Critique
Feedback

Barriers to communication

Physical; word usage; interpersonal; mental

Cultural and language barriers
Subordination problems
Power-distance barriers

CRM Training
Core teamwork behaviours
Monitoring
Feedback
Backing up

CRM Training
Ad hoc teams
Frequently arise in airline ops
73% of accidents occur on first day crew flying together

Situation awareness
Important topic in CRM
See lecture on SA!

CRM Training
CRM training resources
Self-study
Classroom awareness training
Modelling
Classroom skills training
Skills practice in simulators
Practice/coaching during flying

CRM Training
LOFT
Run in a high fidelity simulator
Realistic sortie/real time
Crew and facilitator in role
Few failures
Non-technical focus
Focus on choice dilemmas
Non jeopardy
Crew-centred debrief using video

CRM Training
CRM Issues
What is best practice?
Does it work?
Those needing most help from CRM most resistant to
change
May change attitudes but not behaviour
Needs management commitment
CRM skill fade occurs over time
Cultural issues should be considered

Error and Accidents

(See Accident module)
The following may help you structure your
Knowledge of this topic drawn from work
of John Chappelow

ENVIRONMENT
Disruptive factors
noise
heat
cold
vibration

SYSTE
M

Enabling factors

OPERATO
R

ergonomics

threat
Predispositi
task demand training
ons
personality
briefing
social context talent

Be able to list/
describe the
main factors

fatigue
alcohol
overarousal
underarousal

Intention

Perception
Task

Action

Error type

Disruptive
factors

Enabling
factors

Predisposing
factors

Perception
errors

Stressors

Physical

Trait

Visual illusion
Disorientation

Physiological
Noise

Personality
Lack of talent

Undetected threat
Misinterpretation

Time pressure
Operational
pressure
High task demand

Ergonomics
Handling
characteristics
System logic

Inexperience
Excess zeal
Lack of airmanship

Intention errors

Low task demand

Sensory limitations

Rule violation

Threat

Inappropriate
model

Distraction

Cognitive
limitations
Motor limitations

Action errors

Organisational

State

Cognitive failure
Slow response
Precipitate response

Training
Briefing
Administrative
support
Social context

Alcohol
Fatigue
Hypoglycaemia

Disorganised
response
Mishandling

Life stress
Low morale
Underarousal
Overarousal
Social factors

Error type

Summary:

Disruptive
Enabling
major
factors factors
factors

Predisposing
factors

Perception
errors

Stressors

Physical

Trait

Visual illusion
Disorientation

Physiological
Noise

Personality
Lack of talent

Undetected threat
Misinterpretation

Time pressure
Operational
pressure
High task demand

Ergonomics
Handling
characteristics
System logic

Intention errors

Low task demand

Rule violation

Threat

Inappropriate
model

Distraction

Action errors

Organisational

State

Cognitive failure
Slow response
Precipitate response

Training
Briefing
Administrative
support
Social context

17%
Cognitive failure
Disorganised
Disorganised
response
26%
Mishandling
response

Personality
21%
Ergonomics
Inexperience
ExcessInexperie
zeal
23
Training Lack nce
%
of airmanship
Briefing Sensory limitations
Admin. Cognitive
limitations
support Motor limitations
~ 40%
Alcohol
Fatigue
Hypoglycaemia
Life stress
Low morale
Underarousal
Overarousal
Social factors

Social context
9%
Social

11%

Youve seen this before...

Neurotic
Impulsive

Anxious

Extraverted
Introverted

Stable

Major causal factors: Human factor

Inex perienc e
High tas k dem and
A dm inis trative s upport
O verarous al
Dis trac tion
S oc ial fac tors
S ens ory lim itations
P ers onality
Lac k of airm ans hip
E rgonom ic s
0

10

15

20

Nu m b e r o f m ish a p s

Expanded data set

25

30

35

Sensitivity: Human factors

Social factors
Distraction
High task demand

This graph shows

benefit of eliminating
the factor, and cost
of an increase in its
severity

Inexperience
Administrative support
Briefing

Social factors are

seen to be more
important when we
conduct sensitivity
analysis: these problems
are soluble

Lack of airmanship
Supervision
Sensory limitations
Social context
-15

-10

Expanded data set

-5

10

15

Error: Examples of Possible Remedies know this

Social factors
Personnel selection
CRM training
Distraction
May be able to select individuals less prone to distraction
High task demand
Selection (e.g., some personality types cope better with high workload)
Training creates more spare capacity
The system can be modified to reduce workload (automation, better
ergonomics etc)
Inexperience
More (or improved) training
Administrative support
Organisational interventions