Statistic Copy 1

INTRODUCTION TO
STATISTICS AND
STATISTICAL
INFERENCE
Training on Teaching
Basic Statistics for
Tertiary Level Teachers
Summer 2008
Note: Most of the Slides were taken from

Elementary Statistics: A Handbook of Slide
Presentation prepared by Z.V.J. Albacea, C.E.
Reano, R.V. Collado, L.N. Comia and N.A.
Tandang in 2005 for the Institute of Statistics,
CAS, UP Los Banos
TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .
Session 1.2
Session 1.3
Session 1.4
Session 1.5
Session 1.6
Session 1.7
Session 1.8
Areas of Statistics
Descriptive statistics
Inferential statistics
methods
methods
concerned w/
collecting, describing, and
analyzing a set of data
without drawing
conclusions (or inferences)
about a large group
concerned
with the analysis of a
subset of data leading
to predictions or
inferences about the
entire set of data
Session 1.9
Example of Descriptive Statistics

Present the Philippine population by constructing a
graph indicating the total number of Filipinos counted
during the last census by age group and sex
Session 1.10
Example of Inferential Statistics

A new milk formulation designed to improve the psychomotor
development of infants was tested on randomly selected infants.
Based on the results, it was concluded that the new milk formulation is
effective in improving the psychomotor development of infants.
Session 1.11
Inferential Statistics
Larger Set
(N units/observations)
Smaller Set
(n
units/observations)
Inferences and
Generalizations
Session 1.12
Key Definitions
A universe is the collection of things or

observational units under consideration.
A variable is a characteristic observed

or measured on every unit of the
universe.
A population is the set of all possible

values of the variable.
Session 1.13
Key Definitions
Parameters are numerical measures

that describe the population or universe
of interest. Usually donated by Greek
letters; (mu), (sigma), (rho),
(lambda), (tau), (theta), (alpha) and
(beta).
Statistics are numerical measures of a

sample
Session 1.14
Types of Variables
Qualitative variable
non-numerical values
Quantitative variable
numerical values
a.
Discrete
b.
Continuous
c.
countable
measurable
Constant
Session 1.15
Levels of Measurement
1.
Nominal
2.
Ordinal scale
3.
Accounts for order; no indication of distance

between positions
Used in ranking, no meaningful numerical
statements can be made about difference between
categories.
Interval scale
4.
Numbers or symbols used to classify
Equal intervals; no absolute zero
Ratio scale
Has absolute zero
Session 1.16
NOMINAL
ORDINAL
Gender, Political Party,

Religion, Automobile
Ownership,
Teachers Performance, Movie
Classification, Faculty Rank,
Hotel Ratings, Student Class
Designation
INTERVAL
Temperature,
RATIO
Weight, Age, Salary
Session 1.17
Methods of Collecting Data
Objective Method
Subjective Method
Use of Existing Records
Session 1.18
Methods of Presenting Data

Textual
Tabular
Graphical
Session 1.19
Summary Measures
Location
Variation
Percentile
Quartile
Decile
Maximum
Minimum
Central
Tendency
Mean
Range
Variance
Kurtosis
Coefficient of
Variation
Interquartile
Range
Mode
Median
Skewness
Standard Deviation
Session 1.20
Measures of Location
A Measure of Location summarizes a
data set by giving a typical value within
the range of the data values that describes
its location relative to entire data set.
Some Common Measures:
Minimum, Maximum
Central Tendency
Percentiles, Deciles, Quartiles
Session 1.21
Maximum and Minimum
Minimum is the smallest value

in the data set, denoted as MIN.
Maximum is the largest value in

the data set, denoted as MAX.
Session 1.22
Measure of Central Tendency
A single value that is used to identify

the center of the data
it is thought of as a typical value of
the distribution
precise yet simple
most representative value of the
data
Session 1.23
N
N
x
x
xnn
N
i
1ii
1
2
N
n1i12n
Mean
Most common measure of the center

Also known as arithmetic average
Population Mean
Sample Mean
Session 1.24
Properties of the Mean
may not be an actual

observation in the data set
can be applied in at least
interval level
easy to compute
every observation contributes to
the value of the mean
Session 1.25
Properties of the Mean
subgroup means can be combined

to come up with a group mean
easily affected by extreme values
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mean = 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
Mean = 6
Session 1.26
Median
Divides the observations into two equal

parts
If the number of observations is odd, the

median is the middle number.
If the number of observations is even, the
median is the average of the 2 middle
numbers.
~
Sample median denoted as x
while population median is denoted as

Session 1.27
Properties of a Median
may not be an actual observation in

the data set
can be applied in at least ordinal level
a positional measure; not affected by
extreme values
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
Median = 5
Session 1.28
Mode
occurs most frequently

nominal average
may or may not exist
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
No Mode
Mode = 9
Session 1.29
Properties of a Mode
can be used for qualitative as

well as quantitative data
may not be unique
not affected by extreme values
can be computed for ungrouped
and grouped data
Session 1.30
Mean, Median & Mode

Use the mean when:
sampling stability is desired

other measures are to be
computed
Session 1.31
Mean, Median & Mode

Use the median when:
the exact midpoint of the

distribution is desired
there are extreme
observations
Session 1.32
Mean, Median & Mode

Use the mode when:
when the "typical" value is

desired
when the dataset is measured
on a nominal scale
Session 1.33
Percentiles
Numerical measures that give the

relative position of a data value
relative to the entire data set.
Divide an array (raw data arranged
in increasing or decreasing order of
magnitude) into 100 equal parts.
The jth percentile, denoted as Pj, is
the data value in the the data set
that separates the bottom j% of the
data from the top (100-j)%.
Session 1.34
EXAMPLE
Suppose LJ was told that relative
to the other scores on a certain
test, his score was the 95th
percentile.
This means that 95% of those
who took the test had scores less
than or equal to LJs score, while
5% had scores higher than LJs.
Session 1.35
Deciles
Divide an array into ten equal

parts, each part having ten
percent of the distribution of the
data values, denoted by Dj.
The 1st decile is the 10th

percentile; the 2nd decile is the
20th percentile..
Session 1.36
Quartiles
Divide an array into four equal

parts, each part having 25% of
the distribution of the data
values, denoted by Qj.
The 1st quartile is the 25th
percentile; the 2nd quartile is
the 50th percentile, also the
median and the 3rd quartile is
the 75th percentile.
Session 1.37
Measures of Variation
A
measure of variation is a
single value that is used to
describe the spread of the
distribution
A measure
of central tendency
alone does not uniquely
describe a distribution
Session 1.38
A look at dispersion
Data A
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20 21
Mean = 15.5
s = 3.338
20 21
Mean = 15.5
s = .9258
Data B
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Data C
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20 21
Mean = 15.5
s = 4.57
Session 1.39
Two Types of Measures of

Dispersion
Absolute Measures of Dispersion:
Range
Inter-quartile Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
Relative Measure of Dispersion:

Coefficient of Variation
Session 1.40
Range (R)
The difference between the maximum and
minimum value in a data set, i.e.
R = MAX MIN
Example: Pulse rates of 15 male residents of a
certain village
54
74
58
75
58 60 62 65 66 71
77 78 80 82 85
R = 85 - 54 = 31
Session 1.41
Some Properties of the Range
The larger the value of the

range, the more dispersed
the observations are.
It is quick and easy to
understand.
A rough measure of
dispersion.
Session 1.42
Inter-Quartile Range (IQR)

The difference between the third quartile and
first quartile, i.e.
IQR = Q3 Q1
Example: Pulse rates of 15 residents of a
certain village
54
74
58
75
58 60 62 65 66 71
77 78 80 82 85
IQR = 78 - 60 = 18
Session 1.43
Some Properties of IQR
Reduces the influence of

extreme values.
Not as easy to calculate

as the Range.
Session 1.44
Variance
important measure of variation
shows variation about the mean
Population variance
(X
i 1
)2
N
n
Sample variance
s2
(x x)
i 1
n 1
Session 1.45
Standard Deviation (SD)
most important measure of variation

square root of Variance
has the same units as the original data
N
Population SD
(X
i 1
)2
N
n
Sample SD
(x x)
i 1
n 1
Session 1.46
(s4.31096)2(16)2(146)2(1576)2(176)2(186)2(416)2
Computation of Standard Deviation

Data: 10
12
n=8
=16
14
15
17
18
18
24
Mean
Session 1.47
Remarks on Standard Deviation
If there is a large amount of variation,

then on average, the data values will be
far from the mean. Hence, the SD will be
large.
If there is only a small amount of
variation, then on average, the data
values will be close to the mean. Hence,
the SD will be small.
Session 1.48
Comparing Standard Deviation

Data A
11 12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20 21
Mean = 15.5
s = 3.338
20 21
Mean = 15.5
s = .9258
20 21
Mean = 15.5
s = 4.57
Data B
11 12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Data C
11 12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Session 1.49

Example: Team A - Heights of five marathon players in inches
Mean = 65
S
=0
65
65
65
65
65
Session 1.50

Example: Team B - Heights of five marathon players in inches
Mean = 65
s = 4.0
62
67
66
70
60
Session 1.51
Properties of Standard Deviation
It is the most widely used measure of

dispersion. (Chebychevs Inequality)
It is based on all the items and is rigidly
defined.
It is used to test the reliability of measures
calculated from samples.
The standard deviation is sensitive to the
presence of extreme values.
It is not easy to calculate by hand (unlike the
range).
Session 1.52
Chebyshevs Rule
It permits us to make statements about
the percentage of observations that

must be within a specified number of
standard deviation from the mean
The proportion of any distribution that
lies within k standard deviations of the
mean is at least 1-(1/k2) where k is any
positive number larger than 1.
This rule applies to any distribution.
Session 1.53
Chebyshevs Rule
For any data set with mean () and
standard deviation (SD), the following
statements apply:
At least 75% of the observations are
within 2SD of its mean.
At least 88.9% of the observations are
within 3SD of its mean.
Session 1.54
Illustration
At least 75%
At least 75% of the observations

are within 2SD of its mean.
Session 1.55
Example
The midterm exam scores of 100 STAT 1 students
last semester had a mean of 65 and a standard
deviation of 8 points.
Applying the Chebyshevs Rule, we can say that:
1. At least 75% of the students had scores
between 49 and 81.
2. At least 88.9% of the students had scores
between 41 and 89.
Session 1.56
Coefficient of Variation (CV)
measure of relative variation

usually expressed in percent
shows variation relative to mean
used to compare 2 or more groups
Formula :
SD
CV
100%
Mean
Session 1.57
Comparing CVs
Stock A: Average Price = P50
SD = P5
CV = 10%
Stock B: Average Price = P100
SD = P5
CV = 5%
Session 1.58
Measure of Skewness
Describes the degree of departures of the

distribution of the data from symmetry.
The degree of skewness is measured by
the coefficient of skewness, denoted as SK
and computed as,
3 Mean Median
SK
SD
Session 1.59
What is Symmetry?
A distribution is said to be
symmetric about the mean,
if the distribution to the left of
mean is the mirror image
of the distribution to the right
of the mean. Likewise, a
symmetric distribution has
SK=0 since its mean is
equal to its median and its
mode.
Session 1.60
Measure of Skewness
SK > 0
positively skewed
SK < 0
negatively skewed
Session 1.61
Measure of Kurtosis
Describes the extent of peakedness or

flatness of the distribution of the data.
Measured by coefficient of kurtosis (K)
computed as,
N
i 1
Session 1.62
Measure of Kurtosis
K=0
mesokurtic
K>0
leptokurtic
K<0
platykurtic
Session 1.63
Box-and-Whiskers Plot
Concerned with the symmetry of the

distribution and incorporates
measures of location in order to study
the variability of the observations.
Also called as box plot or 5-number
summary (represented by Min, Max,
Q1, Q2, and Q3).
Suitable for identifying outliers.
Session 1.64
Box-and-Whiskers Plot
The diagram is made up of a box which
lies between the first and third
quartiles.
The whiskers are the straight line
extending from the ends of the box to
the smallest and largest values that
are not outliers.
Session 1.65
Steps to Construct a Box-and-Whiskers plot

Step 1: Draw a rectangular box whose left edge is at the Q1 and whose
right edge is at the Q3 so the box width is the IQR. Then draw a
vertical line segment inside the box where the median is found.
Q1
Md
Q3
75
78
85
Session 1.66
Steps to Construct a Box-and-Whiskers plot

Step 2: Place marks at distances 1.5 IQR from
either end of the box. (1.5 IQR =15)
1.5 IQR
1.5 IQR
60
Q1
Md
Q3
75
78
85
100
Session 1.67
Steps to Construct a Box-and-Whiskers

plot
Step 3:Draw the horizontal line segments
known as the whiskers from each of the
end box to the largest and smallest values
in the data set that are not outliers.
(An observation beyond 1.5 IQR is an
outlier.)
If the largest and smallest values in the
data set are outliers, extend whiskers until
1.5 IQR from either ends of the box.
Session 1.68
Steps to Construct a Box-and-Whiskers

plot
Step 4: For every outlier, draw a dot. If two or more dots
have the same values, draw the dots side by side.
1.5 IQR
1.5 IQR
.
.
55
60
Q1
Md
Q3
75
78
85
98
100
Session 1.69

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INTRODUCTION TO

Note: Most of the Slides were taken from

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Example of Descriptive Statistics

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Example of Inferential Statistics

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

A universe is the collection of things or

A variable is a characteristic observed

A population is the set of all possible

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Parameters are numerical measures

Statistics are numerical measures of a

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Accounts for order; no indication of distance

Numbers or symbols used to classify

Equal intervals; no absolute zero

Has absolute zero

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Gender, Political Party,

Weight, Age, Salary

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Methods of Collecting Data

Use of Existing Records

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Methods of Presenting Data

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Maximum and Minimum

Minimum is the smallest value

Maximum is the largest value in

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Measure of Central Tendency

A single value that is used to identify

Most common measure of the center

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Properties of the Mean

may not be an actual

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Properties of the Mean

subgroup means can be combined

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

Divides the observations into two equal

If the number of observations is odd, the

while population median is denoted as

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

may not be an actual observation in

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

occurs most frequently

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .

can be used for qualitative as

TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS .