Combustion of Coal particle

Heat Transfer in Kiln

Combustion and Heat Economy
Flame formation and Shape
Flame momentum and Positioning

COMBUSTION
The object of firing in kiln is to convert the
latent heat in the fuel to free heat and to
transfer this heat to the charge in the kiln.
Combustion is an exothermic reaction
In the cement industry, coal, fuel oil and
natural gas are the fuels used for
combustion.
Optimum rate of combustion is achieved
by appropriate time, temperature and
turbulence

COAL PARTICLE
COMBUSTION
Five Stages in burning of a coal particle
Heating
Pyrolysis
Ignition
Combustion of Gases
Combustion of coke residue

 Heating

Pyrolysis

Ignition

- Instantaneous coal will reach the

burning zone temperature in about 50
to 100 ms
- Driving out the volatile matters CO,
CH4, C2H6, H2,NO, SO2 etc. with about
200-300 degC
- First, gases released get ignited and
burn with oxygen available in the
primary air and the coal particle will
be surrounded by a burning gas film
consisting of gases released form the
coal

 Combustion of Gases
The penetration of oxygen into the gas film by
diffusion where it combines with the out flowing
pyrolysis gas .
The diffusion rate of oxygen is more important as it is
comparatively slower than the reaction of oxygen with
the pyrolysis gas
Better mixing of fuel & air and high temperatures
increases the diffusion rate
Combustion of Coke
Penetration of oxygen and reaches the particle and
burning to yield CO which in turn yields CO2.Here
also,diffusion of oxygen is the rate determining
reaction

 Rate of combustion of coal is influenced by

* particle size of coal
* grade of coal
* surrounding temp and oxygen content
* aerodynamic condition of the combustion
chamber
High temperature,
Sufficient Oxygen
Coal
Powerful turbulence

Combustio
n Product

For Efficient COMBUSTION.

Sufficient oxygen must be available to mix with the
fuel.
A certain temperature must be maintained to ignite
the fuel-oxygen mixture.
Sufficient time must be available to accomplish
complete combustion while the fuel is in suspension
in combustion chamber.
Evacuation of combustion products from the
combustion chamber as soon as they are formed.
Relative motion between air and fuel particles in the
system with high degree of turbulence.

 The surface of the coal particle is another

controlling factor, and the larger the
surface , the quicker the combustion
The surface of area of the micro pores is
the major part, which are partly natural
and partly created by the voids of the
escaped gases from the pyrolysis.
Young coal contains more micro pores
compared to older coal . Hence old coal
need to ground finer.

HEAT TRANSFER IN KILN

Mainly through Radiation
The amount of heat from radiation is very
much dependant on the temperature
difference between the material charge and
the flame.
Minor portion through convection i.e when
the hot combustion gas comes into contact
with the coating, the lining or the feed.
Most of the energy coming from the flame is
transferred to the charge via the lining

The Radiant Heat

E= C x E x (Tf4 - Tc4 )
E = Energy Transferred KW/ M2
C = Constant
E = Emissivity
Tf = Average flame temperature degC
Tc = Charge temperature
As the particles are normally darker than
the gases, flames containing coal ash has
higher E

EMISSIVITY
An expression of the amount of energy
transfer from a surface in relation to the
temperature of the surface
Total black has an emission factor of 1
and white has 0 by definition
Normally quoted emission factors are
Coal E > 0.95
Oil E > 0.7 - 0.9
Gas E > 0.3 - 0.6

FUEL

OXYGEN

Flue gas

HEAT

The oxygen required for firing is obtained

from the combustion air
In the kiln system, the three sources of
combustion air are
a) Primary air
b) Secondary air
c) False air
For precalciner, tertiary air from cooler

Primary Air

Secondary Air

Combustion Air (Theoretical)

Combustion
Air (Actual)

False Air

Excess Air

 Quantity of combustion air in kiln system

is adjusted by the preheater fan speed
Lack of combustion air in kiln is indicated
by kiln inlet O2 analyser (<1%)
For efficient combustion O2 should be
0.5
0.5
3.5
CO

to 1.0 % at Kiln inlet

to 1.0 % at Calciner
to 3.5 % at preheater exit
should be < 500 PPM in all places

Excess Air and Deficient Air

Stoichiometric quantity of Air
A theo = 11.59C + 34.77H + 4.348(S - O) kg/kg of fuel
100 X O2
% Excess Air = ----------------, O2 - % oxygen by volume
21 - O2
In case of incomplete combustion ,
189( 2 O2 - CO)
% Excess Air = --------------------------N2 - 1.89 ( 2 O2 - CO)
where O2, CO and N2 stands for % of oxygen, carbon
monoxide and Nitrogen respectively

Combustion and Heat Economy

Improper
adjustment of
Excess air
Poor regulation of
combustion air

Incomplete
combustio
n

Poor mixing of
air and coal
Localised
heating of
material and
smelt formation

Secondary
combustion
in Preheater

More
fuel to
meet
the
desired
temp

High feed
end temp

Impact of Primary and Secondary air

on Combustion and Heat Economy
Temperature and quantity of primary and secondary air
affects the combustion efficiency
Higher the temperature, closer will be the ignition point
Latest burners ensures rapid mixing of air with fuel
resulting in short and intense flame and better
combustion efficiency
EXCESS AIR
As minimum as possible
More excess air absorbs more heat for heating the air to
the flame temperature
Higher the excess air, higher will be the exhaust gas
volume and PH fan power consumption

FLAME FORMATION
Flame formation is controlled by dividing
the primary air into jet and swirl air which
can be regulated independently
The inflammable elements are mainly a
variety of C, H and S components which
will react with oxygen, forming CO,
CO2,H2O and SO2.
The required amount of oxygen is supplied
through combustion air (Primary air &
Secondary air). Around 10 % excess air is
also supplied to facilitate complete
combustion

Combustion reactions are --1. C + O2

-----> CO

+ Heat (+ 29364 Kcal/kgMol)

2. CO + O2 ----->

CO2 + Heat (+ 67636 Kcal/kgMol)

3. H2 + O2 ----->

H2O + Heat ( + 68317 Kcal/kgMol)

4. S + O2

SO2

----->

+ Heat ( + 70960 Kcal/kgMol)

Complete combustion of coal yields 97000 kcals/kg

mole whereas incomplete combustion yields only 29364
kcals/kgmole

Primary Air
Adjusted separately outside the kiln and it is
independent of the draft through kiln.
Functions ----Shaping the flame, creating
turbulance to entrain the secondary air in the
flame and to cool the burner pipe.
In the range of 4 25 % by weight depending
upon the burner design and firing system.
Lesser the primary air, lesser will be the heat
consumption.
Example:- Firing in burner = 840 Kcal/kg of
Clinker
Reduction in primary air from 20 % to 10 % gives
saving of 0.002 x 840 x (20 10)= 11.3 Kcal/kg
of clinker.

FLAME
Theoretical flame temperature is the
temperature the flame would achieve if the
combustion was completed without loss of
heat from the flame to the surroundings
Preheating of combustion air increases the
flame temperature
Theo.flame temperature without preheating
of combustion air for
Coal Flame
= 2155 degC
Fuel oil flame
= 2120 degC
Natural gas flame = 2050 degC

Flame temperature depends on

Fuel feed rate
Burning Zone condition
Oxygen Availability
During lesser oxygen availability, increasing the
coal feed will further decrease the burning zone
temp.
Instead, reducing the kiln Feed, Speed and
increasing the primary air flow will improve the
burning zone temperature

Color
Lowest visible red
Lowest visible red to dark red
Dark red to cherry red
Cherry red to bright cherry red
Bright cherry red to orange
Orange to yellow
Yellow to light yellow
Light yellow to white
White to dazzling white

Temp oC
475
475 650
650 750
750 825
825 900
900 1090
1090 1320
1320 1540
Over 1540

Flame Colour

BZ Condition

Dark / Cherry Red

Cold

Orange - Yellow

Normal

White

Hot

Modern kiln systems are provided with real time

Video and Scanning pyrometer for monitoring
burning zone condition and maximizing the cooler
efficiency

To increase the Flame Temperature..

Higher combustion air temperature
Reducing the primary air volume to optimum
value
Optimum amount of excess air ( kiln inlet O 2
1% - 2 %)
Proper mixing of fuel and air
Promoting rapid mixing of fuel and air by
improving the design of burner
Increasing the fineness of fuel

FLAME SHAPE
Primary air jet creates a turbulence in the
secondary air supply in order to mix the total
combustion air with the fuel and regulate the
geometric shape of the flame.
Friction at the boundary of primary jet and
secondary air accelerates the secondary air to the jet
velocity and momentum transfer occurs and creates
an external recirculation of gas

 Internal circulation occurs when the

primary air sent in two streams as swirl air
and jet air.
As entrainment of air in the jet takes place
simultaneously on both sides, a low pressure
zone in the centre of the hollow jet is created
which produces a reversed flow of the gases.
The recirculation of hot gas ensures quick
heating of fuel and displaces the ignition
point towards the burner tip
A higher degree of internal circulation
widens the flame heavily which leads to
flame impingement on coating and lining.

Characteristics of Flames
With & Without Recirculation
Flame with re-circulation

Flame without re-circulation

Fuel/Air Mixing

Good

Poor

Reducing/Oxidi
sing Conditions

Oxidising conditions exist

throughout the flame

Reducing conditions occur in the fuel

rich part of flame and in the area of
flame impingement

Flame
Impingement

None re-circulating gases

protect refractory and product
from direct flame contact

Flame Impingement occurs on

refractory where jet expands to hit the
walls (11-14O)

Carbon
monoxide level

CO only produced in significant

quantities below 0.5% oxygen

High level of CO produced at oxygen

levels as higher 2-4%

Heat release
Pattern

Rapid mixing gives high flame

temperature and good heat
transfer close to the burner
nozzle

Poor fuel/air mixing gives gradual heat

release with long flame

Kiln Stability

Good flame shape with stable

heat release pattern gives stable
kiln

Heat release pattern considerably

affected by changes in secondary air
temperature, excess air, fuel quality etc.

FLAME MOMENTUM ( Relative Impulse)

Is the driving force for the entrainment of
secondary air in the primary air stream.
Provides the energy required for the mixing of fuel
and combustion air
A minimum flame momentum is a must for proper
mixing and combustion
Is expressed as the percentage of primary times the
primary air velocity.
Flame Momentum (RI) = %PA x Vp
% PA = (primary air / Lmin) x 100 % {%}
Vp = velocity of primary air
{ms-1}

For coal fired burner , normal value 1200

-1500

 A high flame momentum will give a short

intense flame whereas a low momentum will
give a long soft flame
Modern burners are designed for a
minimum amount of primary air ( 4 -5%)
with high primary air velocities.

FLAME LENGTH
Major influencing parameters
Ignition time
is the time it takes from the coal is
introduced in the flame to the ignition that
occurs
Ignition depends on
- Coal characteristics(volatile matter,ash,etc.)
- Temperature
- Burner technology and design
Burnout time
The time which is spent in the flame for
complete combustion

Impact of Fuel Change on Flame and

Combustion

Burnout time differs for different fuels

Good fuel burnout is required for
# low CO emission
# lowest specific heat consumption
# maximum kiln production
# avoiding reducing atmospheric condition
High fuel burnout is ensured by
more fuel fineness
advanced burner design
latest calciner design
In operation, higher fineness and more availability
of oxygen will improve burning

Fuel and Air Mixing and Its effect on

Flame

The rate of Entrainment of secondary air

with fuel jet is dependant on the
Ratio of momentum between the combined
primary air and fuel jet and the momentum
of secondary air
Flame shape is influenced by
ID Fan speed
secondary air temperature
primary air pressure and temperature
burning zone condition

 Higher the flame momentum, better

will be the mixing and shorter flame
Design of the cooler hood system effects
the aerodynamics of the secondary air,
which in turn effects the fuel air mixing
Increased cooler air flow reduces the
secondary air temperature and thus the
combustion efficiency

Flame shapes & its Effect of Refractory

Flame A - Lazy
- Long - Floating
Flame C - Snappy - Shorter - Stable
Flame C is favorable for kiln control, clinker
quality and fuel efficiency
FLAME DIRECTION
The path of the flame is not a straight line
Flame has a tendency to lift upwards because of
Buoyancy
Mechanical condition of the primary air pipe line also
influences the flame direction

Flame direction adjustment...

Primary air pipe is slightly below the center of the kiln to
offset the flame buoyancy (Flame E and F)
Burner pipe is fixed parallel to the axis of the kiln
Burner pipe position has a direct influence on the flame
characteristics and burning condition

Correct and Incorrect areas for

the Flame Direction

If the center point of the flame is

positioned at
2A or 2B - best heat exchange as it is towards the feed
bed

3A
- unburnt fuel could enter the feed
bed as it is too closer
1A,2C,1B flame impingement on the
coating/brick as the flame leaning towards
the kiln wall, causing poor refractory life

Flame Positioning..
A flame should never be allowed to impinge
upon the coating or feed bed
Flame direction should be adjusted only at
normal operating condition
Better to do the desired adjustments in several
small steps for better operating stability
Once the ideal flame direction is obtained, it
should not be changed unless for abnormal
condition
During shutdown, the PA fan should run untill
the burning zone temp reaches below 300 degC

Effect of Flame on Protective Coating

and Lining Life

Though short flame is better for operation, it

should not be too short which is harmful to the
coating
In Cold kiln, no coating is formed as necessary
amount of liquid phase is not produced
In Normal kiln (Yellow), enough liquid is
present and coating is formed untill the coating
surface temperature reaches the equilibrium
(1315 degC)
In Hot kiln, too much liquid is formed and the
coating melts back to liquid and the feed will
Ball up

 Hot kiln condition is very dangerous to kiln and to

the refractory
Shifting the burning zone location causes
unstable coating condition in the upper and lower
transition zones of the BZ, where the formation and
maintenance of coating is difficult
Colour of the coating clearly indicates the
condition of the kiln

Visual Inspection of kiln to be done for checking

Clinker colour
Clinker size
Cascading action of the clinker bed
Appearance of secondary air from cooler
Coating condition
Flame shape and colour