THEORIES OF

LEARNING
Dr. Manu Sharma
Chairperson: Ms. Neethi

Introduction
The principles of learning are always

operating and always influencing human

activity.
much like the law of gravity, the laws of

learning are always in effect.

learning principles are often deeply involved

in the etiology and maintenance of psychiatric

disorders.

History
Early 20th century:

Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson
Edward Thorndike
In the late 1930s, B. F. Skinner expanded
Thorndike's method.
Behavior therapy movement - 1950s and 1960s.
The specific application of operant conditioning
principles became known as applied
behavioral analysis.

What is learning?
Burns :

a relatively permanent change in behavior

with behavior including both observable activity
and internal processes such as thinking,
attitudes and emotions.
We cant see learning directly, we estimate it by
measuring performance.

1. a persisting change in human performance or

performance potential . . . (brought) about as a result of
the learners interaction with the environment (Driscoll,
1994)
2. the relatively permanent change in a persons
knowledge or behavior due to experience (Mayer, 1982).
3.
an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity
to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice
or other forms of experience (Shuell, 1986).

How do people learn?

A: Nobody really knows.
But there are 6 main theories:
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Social Learning Theory
Constructivism
Multiple Intelligences
Brain-Based Learning

Behaviorism as a learning
theory
Watson coined the term "behaviorism".
See learning as a straightforward process of

response to stimuli.
Reward & Punishment
Conditioning: the acquiring of fairly specific
patterns of behaviors in the presence of well
defined stimuli.
Classical & Operant

Classical Conditioning - Pavlov

S

US
UR

CS

US
CR

Classical conditioning in humans:

John Watson and little Albert

Necessary factors in Classical conditioning:

Stimulus must be strong & distinctive
Order in which US & CS are presented;
backward conditioning
Inter-stimulus interval
Spacing of trials
Conditioned food aversion- an exception

Extinction
Spontaneous recovery-- helps us understand why it

is so difficult to completely eliminate unhealthy

habits and addictive behaviors such as drug abuse.
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Higher order conditioning- The CS is used as an US
in further training

Classical Conditioning
Most behaviours are acquired

through classical conditioning

Behaviour is learnt
Hence can be unlearned

Contd..
Used in understanding acquisition of

normal and abnormal behaviour

E.g. : Acquisition of habits, fears

Wolpe used it to treat certain kinds of anxiety.

Irrational fears & anxieties are conditioned &

can be unlearned through conditioning.

Not possible to be relaxed & fearful at the
same time
Desensitization therapy

Contd..
Phobia: classical conditioning
Systematic Desensitization
(Joseph Wolpe, 1958)

Train person to fall into deep

relaxation (meditation)

Contd..
Create hierarchy of fear eliciting

stimuli
from least to most strong

example of stimulus

Contd..
Gradually (from least to most)

pair each item of hierarchy with

relaxation
without producing fear
(because of deep relaxation)
combines

counter conditioning,
generalization, and extinction

Contd..
Bell & pad conditioning Daniel

Doleys

Operant Conditioning
Operant behavior: Behavior designed to operate on the
environment in a way that will gain something desired or
avoid something unpleasant.
Operant conditioning: Type of learning in which the
likelihood of a behavior is increased or decreased by the use
of reinforcement or punishment.
Reinforce: To present a stimulus that increases the
probability that the preceding response will recur in the
future.

Edward Thorndike
one of the first to show how voluntary

behaviors are influenced by consequences.

Cat and puzzle box experiment:
A cat was placed inside a box and could only
get out by pulling a rope or stepping on a pedal.
The cat began to learn through its accidental
movements how it could open the box, and it
soon could free itself easily.

Law of effect: that behavior which

consistently results in reward will be stamped

in as learned behavior.
Negative reinforcer: Any event whose
reduction or termination increases the
likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur.
Positive reinforcer: Any event whose
presence increases the likelihood that ongoing
behavior will recur.

Two Types of Negative

Reinforcement
Escape

If you escape from something aversive, the next

time you are in the same situation, you will
make the same response

Example
Spousal Abuse

Wife is yelling at her husband (aversive

stimulus)
Husband hits wife.
Wife stops yelling.
Husband is negatively reinforced.
Next time the husband is in a similar situation,
the husband will hit again

Avoidance
To avoid something aversive, you will make

the same response

Example
Kid in candy store.
Kid wants a candy bar, is obnoxious, yells, etc.
Parent is embarrassed and upset.
Gives the kid the candy bar.
Kid stops yelling.
Parent is negatively reinforced (escape). No
more yelling.
Next time, parent gives the kid a candy bar
when they enter the store (avoidance)
The kid is positively reinforced for its behaviour

PUNISHMENT
Stimulus/event which, when its onset is

contingent on a response, decrease the

likelihood that the response will occur again
E.g. Traffic fines, spanking

Negative reinforcer vs.

punisher
Both are noxious events
Negative reinforcement- ending of the event

is contingent on the response

Punisher- onset of the event is contingent on
the response
Responses followed by punishers tend not to
be repeated while those followed by negative
reinforcers tent to be more likely

REINFORCERS ALWAYS INCREASE A

BEHAVIOR
PUNISHERS ALWAYS DECREASE A BEHAVIOR

Primary reinforcer: a reinforcer that is

rewarding in itself, such as, food, water, sex.

Secondary reinforcer: a reinforcer whose
value is learned through association with
primary reinforcer.
Token economies
Delayed reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcement
schedule that calls for reinforcement of a
correct response after a fixed length of time.
Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement
schedule in which the first correct response is
reinforced after various lengths of time.

Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcement of the

correct response after a fixed number of correct
responses.
Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement
schedule in which a varying number of correct
responses must occur before reinforcement is
presented.

Aversive control
Punishment: Any event whose presence
decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior
will recur.
Swift, consistent, terminated when desired
behavior occurs.
Avoidance training: Learning a desired
behavior in order to prevent an unpleasant
condition such as punishment from occurring.

Application
Teaching new behaviours
Modifying existing behaviours
Elimination of problem behaviours

Classical & Operant conditioning

Similarities:
focus on the building of associations btw stimuli
& responses.
Difference: in classical, learner is passive &
response is involuntary.
In operant conditioning, once the operant
response becomes linked to a stimulus, the
operant response looks & acts very much like
an UR.
Biofeedback

Edward Tolman

Cognitive learning theory

What goes on inside us when we learn..
Edward Tolman
The Law of Effect neglected the inner drives

or motives that made learners pursue the

satisfying state
The concept of response needed to include a
range of behaviors- a performance that would
allow learners to reach their goal.
Latent learning: learning occurs even before
the subject reaches the goal & occurs whether
or not the learner is reinforced.

Cognitive map: A learned mental image of a

spatial environment that may be called on to

solve problems when stimuli in the
environment change.
Insight
Learning set
The emphasis here is on the importance of
experience, meaning, problem-solving and the
development of insights.

Leon Kamin

Contingency theory
For learning to take place, the stimulus must

provide the learner with information about the

likelihood of other events occurring.
Learned helplessness
Humans & animals continually collect, code &
distill information about their environments
Classical & operant conditioning are simply
ways of providing that information.

Contingency
Management
Habits : operant responses
Assessment 1st Step
Assess frequency, intensity, reinforcers,

maintaining stimuli

Modify the contingencies leading to

undesired behaviour

Contd..
E.g. Child showing temper

tantrums
How child acquired behaviour
through conditioning
How is it reinforced?
How it is maintained?
How to change it?

Techniques
Can involve reinforcement,

punishment or aversion techniques

Or combination of these
Punish undesired behaviour and

reinforce desired behaviour

Contingency Contract Dowd & Olson

Behavioral

change procedure in
which an agreement is made
between persons who desire to
change & those in whom behaviour
has to be changed

Written agreement

Contd..
if-then relation between behaviours

and consequences
Contingency arrangements are actively

negotiated
E.g. Contract between therapist & child

Contd..
Marital problems
Academic problems
Alcoholism
Dissociative disorders
Pain management

Differential
Reinforcement
Implementation of clearly different

degrees of positive reinforcement

for two behaviours
One to be eliminated and other to

replace it

Contd..
E. g. Mother does not respond when

child shouts but rewards and respond

when behaves well
Inappropriate classroom behaviour,

aggression, self injurious behaviour

Token Economy
Token reinforcers
Can be exchanged for rewards
The activities and weightage for

each is pre determined

PUNISHMENT BASED PROCEDURES

Contingent Punishment
Dispensation of a punishment on a

contingent basis
Tangible punishers, Social

punishers etc
Ethical concerns

Time Out
Contingent isolation or ignoring of

individual following an instance of

problem behaviour
Extinction procedure
Contingent implementation prevents

reinforcement of behaviour

Contd..
Isolated for a relatively brief

period
Room containing no positive or

potentially reinforcing events

Used in : Inappropriate behaviour

in classroom, temper tantrums,

Response Cost
Contingent withdrawal of a reinforcer

following inappropriate, or problem

behavior.
Integral part of contingency

programs.

Contd..
Self Control procedures
Relapse prevention addictive

behaviors are over learned habits

Self reinforcement
Obesity, Study behavior

Albert Bandura

Social learning theory

Albert Bandura
View of learning that emphasizes the ability to

learn by observing a model or receiving

instructions, without first hand experience by
the learner.
Learning takes place through observation and
sensorial experiences
Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery
SLT is the basis of the movement against
violence in media & video games

1. Attend to pertinent clues

2. Code for memory (store a visual image)
3. Retain in memory
4. Accurately reproduce the observed
activity
5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply new
learning
Behavior modification

Modeling
Used to teach effective patterns of

behaviour

Learn new behaviour, modify

existing behaviour

E.g. : social skill training, parental

skills, medical self help skills

Contd..
Direct or indirect
Individual or group

Behavior Rehearsal
Specific procedure - aims to

replace deficient/ inadequate

social or interpersonal responses
by efficient & effective behaviour
patterns
practicing desired forms of

behaviour directions of therapist

Contd..
Patient has to imitate therapist and

learn efficient behaviour

Feedback is given
Used in: Social phobia, Assertiveness

Training

Contd..
Role reversal therapist plays the

role of the person with whom pt

anticipates having a problem
Models desired verbal and non verbal

behaviour

Contd..
Peer modeling films
Teach pro social skills
Teaching medical self help skills
Also done in group settings

Contd..
Avoidance behaviour
Acquisition through modeling. E.g.

fear
Elimination through modeling
Vicarious extinction of fear

Contd..
Graduated modeling
Expose fearful clients to models

who perform behaviors that are

progressively threatening to the
client

Snake phobia - models handling

snakes

Constructivism
It is the assimilation of both behaviorialist and

cognitive ideals.
The constructivist stance maintains that

learning is a process of constructing

meaning; it is how people make sense of their
experience.
Learning is a process in which the learner is

able to build on present and previous

information.

The student is able to take information, create ideas

and make choices by utilizing a thought process.

The trainer should encourage the student to develop
the skills to find out principles on their own.
There should be on-going dialog between the
student and the trainer.
The trainer is responsible for making sure the
information is in a format the student can
comprehend.
The key is to assure the course builds on what has
already been learned.

Brain-Based Learning
(BBL)
Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism
D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980s to

present)
12 governing principles
1. Brain is a parallel processor

7. Focused attention & peripheral perception

2. Whole body learning

8. Conscious & unconscious processes

3. A search for meaning

9. Several types of memory

4. Patterning

10. Embedded learning sticks

5. Emotions are critical

11. Challenge & threat

6. Processing of parts and wholes

12. Every brain is unique

Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner

1.Linguistic intelligence
2.Logical-mathematical intelligence
3.Spatial intelligence or the ability to form a
mental model of the spatial world and to maneuver
within it using this model.
4.Musical intelligence.
5.Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, or the ability to
solve problems using ones body as performed by
athletes, dancers and other craftspeople.
6.Interpersonal intelligence or the ability to
understand other people.
7.Intrapersonal intelligence or the ability to

Humanist
All students are intrinsically motivated to self

actualize or learn
Learning is dependent upon meeting a
hierarchy of needs (physiological,
psychological and intellectual)
Learning should be reinforced.

Andragogy
Assumptions
Adults have the need to now why they are
learning something.
Adults learn through doing.
Adults are problem-solvers.
Adults learn best when the subject is of
immediate use.

Experiential learning
Experiential learning model is a continuous

spiral process which consists of four basic

elements:
1.Concrete experience
2.Observation and reflection
3.Forming abstract concepts
4.Testing in new situations

Learning theories can be applied at the

individual, group, and community levels

not only to comprehend and teach new
material, but also to solve problems, change
unhealthy habits, build constructive
relationships, manage emotions, and develop
effective behavior.

Conclusion
Learning is an active process that takes place as

individuals interact with their environment and

incorporate new information or experiences with
what they already know or have learned.
Factors in the environment that affect learning
The individual exerts significant control over
learning
A critical influence on whether learning occurs is
motivation
No single best theory, --indicate the need to be
sensitive to the unique characteristics and
motivations of each learner.

Tolman & Einstein