EE 102

Circuits 2

Module 1

Sinusoids

Introduction
Commercial power supplies are
alternating voltage sources that
follows the sine function known as
sinusoidal function or simply
sinusoids.
Circuit currents resulting from
sinusoidal voltages are also
alternating in nature called
alternating current (AC).

Hover Dam

Hover Dam Alternators

Alternating Current and Voltages

An alternating voltage or electromotive force (EMF) can be
represented by the following sine function;

e Em sin t
e Em sin 2ft
e Em sin 2 (1 / T )t

T
Em
t

where;
e = instantaneous value of the alternating voltage, volts (V)
Em = maximum or peak value of the alternating voltage, volts (V)
= angular velocity of the alternating voltage, rad/sec
f = frequency of the alternating voltage, hertz (Hz)
T = period of the alternating voltage, sec
t = time in sec.

Instantaneous Value of a Sinusoid

Refers to the voltage (or current) values at any point in time in
a sine wave or sinusoid.
Instantaneous values of voltage and current are usually
symbolized by lower case v and i respectively.
v
v2
v1

t3
t1 t2

-v3

An alternating voltage is given by the sinusoidal function,

v = 325 sin277t. Find
a) The angular velocity, frequency, and period of the
function.
b) The time when the voltage is half its peak value.

The Phase Angle

Refers to the amount of shift (in degrees or radians) of the sine
wave from the vertical axis.
v

shift

shift

The Phase Angle

A sinusoid shifted to the right of the vertical axis can be
expressed by the sine function;

v Vm sin(t )
v =Vm sint

v =Vm sin(t-)

A sinusoid shifted to the right is said to lag from its original

position by the amount of shifting degrees;

The Phase Angle

A sinusoid shifted to the left of the vertical axis can be
expressed by the sine function;

v Vm sin(t )
v

v =Vm sin(t-)

v =Vm sin(t+)

A sinusoid shifted to the left is said to lead from its original

position by the amount of shifting degrees;

The Phase Angle

Two or more sinusoids of the same frequency and phase angle
are said to be in-phase with each other.
Sinusoids that are in-phase reaches its minimum and
maximum values at the same time.
v

v =V2m sin(t-)
v1 =V1m sin(t-)
t

The Phase Angle

Since sin(t+90o) = cos t, the sinusoid v = Vm cost is a
sinusoid with a phase angle of 90o leading (shifted 90o to left).
v

v =Vm sin(t+90o)= Vm cost

Vm

t
90o

Similarly, the sinusoid v = -Vm cost, is a sinusoid with a

phase angle of 90o lagging (shifted 90o to right).
v =Vm sin(t-90 )= -Vm cost
o

Vm

t
90o

The Phase Angle

cos t sin(t 90 ) sin(t )

2

o
sin t cos(t 90 ) cos(t )
2
o

cos t cos(t 180o )

sin t sin(t 90 o )

The Phase Angle

Sines and cosines of the sum and difference of two angles;

sin( a b) sin a cos b cos a sin b

cos(a b) cos a cos b sin a sin b
sin( a b) sin a sin b cos a sin b
cos(a b) cos a cos b sin a sin b

Express the sinusoid v = Vm cos(t+45o) in terms of the sine

function.

Solution:
Letting = t+45o,
v = Vm cos(t+45o)=Vm cos = Vm sin( + 90o).
v = Vm sin(t+45o+90o).
v = Vm sin(t+135o). Ans.

Find the phase difference of the sinusoidal functions

i1=15 cos(10t+50o) and i2=20 cos(10t-100o).

Solution:
i1 is a function shifted 90o+50o= 140o to the left of the vertical
axis while i2 is a function shifted 90o-100o= -10o to the left of
the vertical axis (or actually +10o to the right ) . Therefore, the
phase difference between the two functions is,
140o + 10o = 150o

Ans.

This means i1 is leading i2 by 150o.

v

i1 =15 cos(10t+50o)

i2 =20 cos(10t-100o)
t

140o
10o

Seatwork
Determine the frequency and the phase angle difference
between the two voltages v1 = 4 cos(5t + 30o) volts and
v2 = -2 sin(5t + 20o) volts.

Effective Value of Sinusoids

Also called the root-mean-square or RMS.
It is the value of the sinusoid that has the same heating effect
as if it were a DC.
Given the sinusoid v = Vm sint, the effective value V of this
sinusoid is given by the formula,
V

Vm
0.7071 Vm
2

Effective Value of Sinusoids

i

Vm sint

Both resistor will

consume the same
power as long as the
battery is 0.7071 Vm

+
0.7071 Vm

Derivation of Effective Values

i

i
v = Vm sint

v =Vm sin t

v Vm sin t

I m sin t
R
R

where Im = Vm /R.
Thus, current i is in-phase with
source voltage v.
The instantaneous power p
dissipated by the resistor at any
given time is,

i =Im sin t
t

p vi Vm sin t I m sin t
p Vm I m sin 2 t

Derivation of Effective Values

Plotting the power yields,
The incremental energy dU
dissipated by the resistance
during incremental time dt,
is dU = p dt. Calculating for
total energy U consumed
from time t=0 to t=/
yields,

p = Vm Im sin2 t

U p dt Vm I m sin t dt Vm I m sin 2 t dt
0

Vm I m
2

Derivation of Effective Values

U

Vm I m
2

The power dissipated P over one pulse of the power graph is

the total energy U dissipated divided by the total time this
energy was consumed,
Vm
where V
is the effective

V I
2
U 2 m m Vm I m
P

value of the sinusoidal voltage and

2

Im
I

Vm I m
is the effective value of the
P

2
2
P VI

sinusoidal current.

Meralco supplies a sinusoidal voltage with an effective value

(RMS) of 230 Vac to home users.
a) What is the peak-to-peak value of this sinusoidal voltage?
b) If a flat iron with a resistance of 5 ohms is connected to
this line what is the resulting RMS current to the iron?
c) What is the power consumption of the flat iron in b)?
d) What is the energy dissipated in kilowatt-hr for two hours
of use of the flat iron in b)?

Thank You