Pancreas

Exocrine function

Acini cells

Pancreatic juice- water, enzymes, electrolytes

zymogen granules- digestive enzymes

Breaks down all categories of foodstuff

Endocrine function

Insulin

glucagon

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Acinus of the Pancreas

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Figure 23.26a

Composition and Function of Pancreatic Juice

Water, enzymes, electrolytes(> HCO3)

Neutralizes acid chyme

Provides best pH for pancreatic enzyme activity

Enzymes are released in inactive form and

activated in the duodenum

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Composition and Function of Pancreatic Juice:

Enzymes

Inactive to active enzymes

Trypsinogen to trypsin

Procarboxypeptidase to
carboxypeptidase

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Active enzymes require

bile/ion for optimal
activity

Amylase

Lipases

nucleases

Pancreatic Activation- Enzymes

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Figure 23.27

Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion

Acid
Fatty, protein

secretin
cholecystokinin

During cephalic and gastric

phases, stimulation by
vagal nerve fibers causes
release of pancreatic juice
and weak contractions of
the gallbladder.

1 Acidic chyme entering

duodenum causes the
enteroendocrine cells of
the duodenal wall to release
secretin, whereas fatty,
protein-rich chyme induces
release of cholecystokinin.

2 Cholecystokinin
and secretin enter
bloodstream.

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3 Upon reaching the

pancreas, cholecystokinin
induces the secretion of
enzyme-rich pancreatic juice;
secretin causes copious
secretion of bicarbonate-rich
pancreatic juice.

Figure 23.28

Digestion in the Small Intestine

When Chyme enters duodenum:

Carbohydrates & proteins partially digested

No fat digestion

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Digestion in the Small Intestine

Nutrient absorption here

Chyme enters duodenum slowly (3 ml/wave)

> fat, > time to enter duodenum

Because it is hypertonic and has low pH, mixing

is required for proper digestion

Liver, gallbladder, pancreas supply needed

enzymes, bile salts

Segmentation toward ileocecal valve until

absorption begins

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Motility in the Small Intestine

After nutrients absorbed:

Peristalsis begins

Meal remnants, bacteria, mucosal cells, debris move into

large intestine

Local enteric neurons coordinate intestinal motility

Cholinergic neurons

PLAY

Contraction and shortening of the circular muscle layer

Shortening of longitudinal muscle

Distension of the intestine

InterActive Physiology:
Motility, page 8

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Control of Motility

Other impulses relax the circular muscle

The gastroileal reflex and gastrin:

Relax the ileocecal sphincter

Allow chyme to pass into the large intestine

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Large Intestine
C. Colon

3.

2.
1.
A.

D.
B.
E.

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Figure 23.29a

Valves and Sphincters of the Rectum and

Anus
Three valves of the rectum stop feces from being
passed with gas

The anus has two sphincters:

Internal anal sphincter composed of smooth muscle

External anal sphincter composed of skeletal

muscle

These sphincters are closed except during

defecation

PLAY

InterActive Physiology:
Anatomy Review, page 6

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Mesenteries of Digestive Organs

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Figure 23.30b

Mesenteries of Digestive Organs

1.

2.

3.
4.

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Figure 23.30c

Large Intestine: Microscopic Anatomy

Colon- mucosa = simple columnar epithelium

No folds, villi, enzyme secreting cells

Has numerous deep crypts lined with goblet cells

Increasing numbers of goblet cells closer to anus

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Large Intestine: Microscopic Anatomy

Anal canal mucosa = stratified squamous

epithelium

Anal sinuses exude mucus and compress feces

Superficial venous plexuses are associated with the

anal canal

Inflammation of these veins results in itchy

varicosities called hemorrhoids

PLAY

InterActive Physiology:
Anatomy Review, page 5

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Structure of the Anal Canal

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Figure 23.29b

Large Intestine: Bacterial Flora

Normal flora in large intestine:

Bacteria from small intestine

Those entering via the anus

These bacteria:

Colonize the colon

Ferment indigestible carbohydrates

Release irritating acids and gases (flatus)

Synthesize B complex vitamins and vitamin K

Bacteria produce needed vitamins for us

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Functions of the Large Intestine

Reclaim: Vitamins, water, electrolytes

Propel fecal material toward the anus

Haustral contractions- move colon contents

Presence of food in the stomach:

Activates the gastrocolic reflex

Initiates peristalsis that forces contents toward the

rectum

Though essential for comfort, the colon is not essential for

life
InterActive Physiology:
Secretion, page 15

InterActive Physiology:
Motility, page 11

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InterActive Physiology:
Digestion and Absorption, page 10

Defecation
Feces, distension, stimulates
contraction, relaxes internal
anal sphincter, voluntary
relasation of external
sphincter

relaxes
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Figure 23.32

Chemical Digestion: Carbohydrates

Digestion of CHO by:

salivary & pancreatic amylases, brush border

enzymes

Absorption of CHO

Cotransport with Na+, facilitated diffusion

Enter the capillary bed in the villi

Transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein

PLAY

InterActive Physiology:
Digestion and Absorption, pages 4 and 7

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Chemical Digestion: Proteins

Absorption: similar to carbohydrates

Digestion by Enzymes:

Stomach- pepsin

Small intestine from Pancreatic enzymes

trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase

Brush border enzymes

PLAY

aminopeptidases, carboxypeptidases,
dipeptidases

InterActive Physiology:
Digestion and Absorption, pages 5 and 8

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Why not absorb

whole proteins ?

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Figure 23.34

Chemical Digestion: Fats

Absorption: Diffusion into intestinal cells where

they:

Combine with proteins and extrude chylomicrons

Enter lacteals and are transported to systemic

circulation via lymph

PLAY

InterActive Physiology:
Digestion and Absorption, pages 6 and 9

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Chemical Digestion: Fats

Glycerol and short chain fatty acids are:

Absorbed into the capillary blood in villi

Transported via the hepatic portal vein

Enzymes/chemicals used: bile salts, lipase

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Chemical Digestion: Fats

Emulsification in
small intestine
using bile salts

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Figure 23.35

Fatty Acid Absorption

Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter intestinal

cells via diffusion

They are combined with proteins within the cells

Resulting chylomicrons are extruded

They enter lacteals and are transported to the

circulation via lymph

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Fatty Acid Absorption

Fatty acids and
monoglycerides
associated with
micelles in
lumen of intestine

Lumen of
intestine

1 Fatty acids and

monoglycerides
resulting from fat
digestion leave
micelles and enter
epithelial cell by
diffusion.

Absorptive
epithelial cell
cytoplasm
ER

Golgi
apparatus

2 Fatty acids are

used to synthesize
triglycerides in
smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
3 Fatty globules are
combined with
proteins to form
chylomicrons
(within Golgi
apparatus).
4 Vesicles containing
chylomicrons
migrate to the
basal membrane,
are extruded from
the epithelial cell,
and enter a lacteal
(lymphatic capillary).

Lacteal

Chylomicron

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5 Lymph in the
lacteal transports
chylomicrons away
from intestine.

Figure 23.36

Chemical Digestion: Nucleic Acids

Absorption: active transport via membrane

carriers

Absorbed in villi and transported to liver via

hepatic portal vein

Enzymes used: pancreatic ribonucleases and

deoxyribonuclease in the small intestines

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Electrolyte Absorption

Most ions are actively absorbed along the length of

small intestine

Na+ is coupled with absorption of glucose and

amino acids

Ionic iron is transported into mucosal cells where it

binds to ferritin

Anions passively follow the electrical potential

established by Na+

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Electrolyte Absorption

K+ diffuses across the intestinal mucosa in

response to osmotic gradients

Ca2+ absorption:

Is related to blood levels of ionic calcium

Is regulated by vitamin D and parathyroid hormone

(PTH)

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Water Absorption

95% of water is absorbed in the small intestines by

osmosis

Water moves in both directions across intestinal

mucosa

Net osmosis occurs whenever a concentration

gradient is established by active transport of
solutes into the mucosal cells

Water uptake is coupled with solute uptake, and as

water moves into mucosal cells, substances follow
along their concentration gradients

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 41-13a

Carbohydrate digestion
Polysaccharides

Oral cavity,
pharynx,
esophagus

(starch, glycogen)

Disaccharides

(sucrose, lactose)

Salivary amylase
Smaller polysaccharides,
maltose

Stomach
Polysaccharides
Lumen of
small
intestine

Epithelium
of small
intestine
(brush
border)

Pancreatic amylases
Maltose and other
disaccharides

Disaccharidases

Monosaccharides

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Fig. 41-13b

Protein digestion
Stomach

Proteins
Pepsin
Small polypeptides
Polypeptides
Pancreatic trypsin and
chymotrypsin

Lumen of
small
intestine

Smaller
polypeptides
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Amino acids
Small peptides

Epithelium
of small
intestine
(brush
border)

Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase,
and aminopeptidase
Monosaccharides
Amino acids

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Fig. 41-13c

Nucleic acid digestion

DNA, RNA
Lumen of
small
intestine

Pancreatic
nucleases

Nucleotides
Nucleotidases
Epithelium
of small
intestine
(brush
border)

Nucleosides
Nucleosidases
and
phosphatases
Nitrogenous bases,
sugars, phosphates

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Fig. 41-13d

Fat digestion
Fat globules

Bile salts
Lumen of
small
intestine

Fat droplets

Pancreatic lipase
Glycerol, fatty
acids, monoglycerides

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 41-13
Protein digestion

Carbohydrate digestion
Oral cavity,
pharynx,
esophagus

Polysaccharides

Disaccharides

(starch, glycogen)

(sucrose, lactose)

Nucleic acid digestion

Fat digestion

Salivary amylase
Smaller polysaccharides,
maltose
Stomach

Proteins
Pepsin
Small polypeptides

Lumen of
small intestine

Polysaccharides
Pancreatic amylases

Polypeptides
Pancreatic trypsin and
chymotrypsin

DNA, RNA

Fat globules

Pancreatic
nucleases
Bile salts

Maltose and other

disaccharides
Nucleotides

Fat droplets

Smaller
polypeptides
Pancreatic lipase

Pancreatic carboxypeptidase

Glycerol, fatty
acids, monoglycerides

Amino acids
Epithelium
of small
intestine
(brush
border)

Small peptides
Disaccharidases

Monosaccharides

Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase,
and aminopeptidase

Amino acids

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Nucleotidases
Nucleosides
Nucleosidases
and
phosphatases
Nitrogenous bases,
sugars, phosphates

Fig. 41-14

Liver
Gallbladder

Bile
Stomach
Secretin
and CCK

Gastrin
+

CCK
+

Pancreas

Duodenum of
small intestine

Secretin
+
Key
CCK
+

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Stimulation
Inhibition

Malabsorption of Nutrients

Results from anything that interferes with delivery

of bile or pancreatic juice

Factors that damage the intestinal mucosa (e.g.,

bacterial infection); BRAT diet to follow

Gluten enteropathy (adult celiac disease) gluten

damages the intestinal villi and reduces the length
of microvilli

Treated by eliminating gluten from the diet (all

grains but rice and corn)

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Embryonic Development of the Digestive

System

3rd week endoderm has folded and foregut and

hindgut have formed

The midgut is open and continuous with the yolk

sac

Mouth and anal openings are nearly formed

8th week accessory organs are budding from

endoderm

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Embryonic Development of the Digestive

System

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Figure 23.37

Developmental Aspects

During fetal life, nutrition is via the placenta, but

the GI tract is stimulated toward maturity by
amniotic fluid swallowed in utero

At birth, feeding is an infants most important

function and is enhanced by

Rooting reflex (helps infant find the nipple) and

sucking reflex (aids in swallowing)

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Developmental Aspects

Digestive system has few problems until the onset

of old age

During old age the GI tract activity declines,

absorption is less efficient, and peristalsis is slowed

Many medications taken by older people interfere

with nutrient absorbtion

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Cancer

Stomach and colon cancers rarely have early signs

or symptoms

Metastasized colon cancers frequently cause

secondary liver cancer

Prevention is by regular dental and medical

examinations

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Cancer

Colon cancer is the 2nd largest cause of cancer

deaths in males (lung cancer is 1st)

Forms from benign mucosal tumors called polyps

whose formation increases with age

Regular colon examination should be done for all

those over 50

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