Chapter 4

Motivation in
Organizations

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

All rights reserved.

Prepared by Charlie Cook

The University of West Alabama

Chapter Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Characterize the nature of motivation, including its
importance and basic historical perspectives.
2. Identify and describe the need-based perspectives
on motivation.
3. Identify and describe the major process-based
perspectives on motivation.
4. Describe learning-based perspectives on motivation.

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

42

The Nature of Motivation

Motivation
The set of forces that leads people to behave in
particular ways

The Importance of Motivation

Job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M),
ability, and environment (E)

P = M + A + E

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

43

4.1

Motivational Framework

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

44

The Motivational Framework

How Motivational Processes Occur:
A need is anything an individual requires or wants
A need deficiency leads to need to satisfy the need
Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying
to satisfy their need deficiencies
Rewards and punishments are consequences of the
goal-directed behavior

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

45

Historical Perspectives on Motivation

The Traditional Approach
Scientific Management (Frederick Taylor) assumes
that employees are motivated solely by money

The Human Relations Approach

Assumes employees needs outweigh money and that
fostering favorable employee attitudes (the illusion of
involvement) results in motivation

The Human Resource Approach

Assumes people want to make genuine contributions;
managers should encourage their participation by
providing the proper working environment conditions
2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

46

Need-Based Perspectives on Motivation

Need-Based Theories of Motivation
Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior

The Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)

Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy
of importance.
Basic (or deficiency) needs
Physiological
Security
Belongingness

Growth needs
Esteem
Self-actualization

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

47

4.2

The Hierarchy of Needs

Reference: Adapted from Abraham H. Maslow, A Theory of Human

Motivation, Psychological Review, 1943, vol. 50, pp. 374396.

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

48

Need-Based Perspectives (contd)

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
Describes existence (E), relatedness (R), and
growth (G) needs

Assumptions:
More than one need may motivate a person at the
same time
Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression
components imply that a person may not stay at the
same level of need in Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

49

Need-Based Perspectives (contd)

The Dual-Structure Theory (Herzberg)
Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two
separate dimensions:
Motivation factors which affect satisfaction
Hygiene factors which determine dissatisfaction

Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment

once hygiene factors are addressed
Criticisms:
May be both method and culture bound
Fails to account for individual differences
Factors (e.g., pay) may affect both dimensions

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

410

4.3

The Dual-Structure Theory of Motivation

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

411

Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation

Other Important Needs
The Need for Achievement (David McClelland)
The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than
was done in the past

The Need for Affiliation

The need for human companionship

The Need for Power

The desire to control the resources in ones environment

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

412

Process-Based Perspectives (contd)

Focus of Process-Based Perspectives
Why people choose certain behavioral options to
satisfy their needs
How people evaluate their satisfaction after they
have attained these goals

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

413

Process-Based Perspectives (contd)

The Equity Theory of Motivation
Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to
avoid perceived inequity
Equity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated fairly in
relation to others
Inequity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated unfairly
in relation to others

The Equity Comparison

Outcomes (self) compared with Outcomes (other)
Inputs (self)
Inputs (other)

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

414

4.4

Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

415

Process-Based Perspectives (contd)

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom)
Motivation depends on how much we want something and
how likely we think we are to get it

Key Components
Effort-to-performance
expectancy

The perceived probability that effort will

lead to performance

Performance-to-outcome The perceived probability that performance

expectancy
will lead to certain outcomes
Outcome

Anything that results from performing

a behavior

Valence

The degree of attractiveness or

unattractiveness (value) that a particular
outcome has for a person

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

416

4.5

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

417

Process-Based Perspectives(contd)
The Porter-Lawler Model
Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction and
performance
Assumes that:
If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead
to satisfaction.
Satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic
(intangible) and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance.

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

418

4.6

The Porter-Lawler Model

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

419

Guidelines for Using Expectancy Theory

Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants
Decide what levels/kinds of performance are needed to
meet organizational goals
Make sure the desired levels of performance are
possible
Link desired outcomes and desired performance
Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies
Make sure the rewards are large enough
Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone
2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

420

Learning-Based Perspectives on Motivation

Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or
behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect
experience

How Learning Occurs

Traditional View: Classical Conditioning
A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response
with an unconditioned stimulus

Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process

Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how
they learn

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

421

Learning-Based Perspectives (contd)

Reinforcement Theory and Learning
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Behavior is a function of its consequences
Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior

Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement

A reward or other desirable consequence that

a person receives after exhibiting behavior

Negative reinforcement
(avoidance)

The opportunity to avoid or escape from an

unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior

Extinction

Decreases the frequency of behavior by

eliminating a reward or desirable consequence
that follows that behavior

Punishment

An unpleasant or aversive consequence that

results from behavior

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

422

4.1

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedule of Reinforcement

Nature of Reinforcement

Command Groups

Task Groups

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

423

Learning-Based Perspectives (contd)

Social Learning in Organizations
Occurs when people observe the behaviors of others,
recognize their consequences, and alter their own
behavior as a result
Conditions for social learning:
Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively
simple
Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not
intellectual
Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed
behavior

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

424

Learning-Based Perspectives (contd)

Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)
The application of reinforcement theory to people in
organizational settings

Effectiveness of OB Mod
Varying results in organizational applications
Lack of real world use

Ethics of OB Mod
Individual freedom of choice
Employee manipulation

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

425

4.7
Steps in
Organizational
Behavior
Modification

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

426

Organizational Behavior in Action

After reading the chapter opening case:
Which needs does working at Netapp fulfill for its
employees?
Is it really possible to have an organization where
almost all employees are (or appear be) satisfied?
What advantages does Netapp have when seeking
people for employment? Disadvantages?

2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

427