Research Methods

Introduction to Psychology
PSY-101
Instructor: Ms Farhat Jabeen

Scientific & non scientific approaches

to knowledge
Non Scientific

Scientific

General
Approach

Intuitive

Empirical

Attitude

Uncritical,
accepting

Critical,
Skeptical

Observation

Casual,
uncontrolled

Systematic,
controlled

Reporting

Biased,
Subjective

Unbiased,
Objective

Scientific & non scientific approaches

to knowledge
Non
Scientific

Scientific

concepts

Ambiguous,
with surplus
meaning

Clear definitions,
operational
specificity

instruments

Inaccurate,
imprecise

Accurate, precise

measurements

Not valid or
reliable

Valid and reliable

hypotheses

Un testable

testable

Methods of Psychology

To understand the influence of society on

individual and individuals influence on
society, we have to understand the research
methods
Research methods are important source to
understand the nature of emotions, cognitions
and human behavior by empirical evidences

Methods of Psychology

e.g. causes of poverty, unemployment, how it

effects the quality of peoples lives and how
the individual behavior, emotions and feelings
can be motivated to overcome the related
problems

Methods of Psychology

Understanding of research methods also help

to avoid the some tempting logical traps e.g.
lack of financial sources is the only cause of
illiteracy in Pakistan

Research Methods

Some Important Research Methods:

1.

Observation
Experimental Method
Correlation Method
Survey Method
Case Study Method
Interview

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

1. Observation

One basic technique to

study social behavior is
systematic observationCarefully observing
behavior as it occurs
A method of research in
which behavior is
systematically observed
and recorded is called
systematic observation

Cont.

Observation can be
conducted in informal way
but in social psychology
systematic observation is
widely used
e.g. in order to understand
the causes of mass failure
of students in universities,
systematic observation of
students can be conducted

Naturalistic Observation:- Observing

behavior in natural setting is called naturalistic

observation e.g. observing students attitudes towards
studies in the universities

Observation can be Direct( in which

observer/researcher directly observer the phenomena
or targeted behavior) or Indirect (in which
information can be gathered by indirect resources
e.g. by recording the behavior etc

Participant Observation:- A method of

observation in which observer/researcher participate in the
natural environment and observe the phenomena while living
in the same natural environment-through this method
researcher can control the effects of awareness to be observed

Non-Participant Observation:- In this

method, researcher observe the phenomena as being
an outsider of that natural environment

Cont.

i.
ii.
iii.

i.
ii.

Merits:Direct sources
Based on natural environment
Simple Method
Demerits:Observer Effect
Observer Bias

2. Correlational Method

The term correlation refers to a tendency for

one event to change as the other changes

A method of research in which a scientist

systematically observes two or more variables
to determine whether changes in one are
accompanied by the changes in other.

Cont.

e.g. Free education will increase the rate of

illiteracy
Social psychologists refers to such
changeable aspects of the natural world as
variables because they can take different
values

The existence of correlation is very useful

from scientific point of view because when a
correlation exist, it is possible to predict one
variable from information about one or more
other variables

Cont.

The ability to make such prediction is one of

the important goal of all branches of science
Such type of prediction are very supportive
for social psychology as some of the future
dangerous behaviors/attitudes which can be
predicted by correlated variables will be
controlled or managed before time.

Cont.

The stronger the correlation between the

variables in phenomena, the more accurate the
prediction
Correlation can range from zero to -1 or + 1 ,
the greater the departure from zero, the
stronger the correlation

Types of Correlation

Positive Correlation:-The increase in one

variable causes the increase in other variable
called positive correlation
Perfect Positive Correlation:- When the
correlation falls at +1, it called perfect positive
correlation
Negative Correlation:- The increase in one
variable causes the decrease in other variable
called negative correlation

Cont.

Perfect Negative Correlation:- When the

correlation falls at -1, it called perfect negative
correlation
In this approach, social psychologists attempt to
determine whether and to what extent different
variables are related to each other
This method involves making careful observations
of each variable and then performing appropriate
statistical tests to determine whether and to what
degree the variables correlated

Cont.

i.

i.

ii.

Merits:Predict future behavior

Demerits:Can misguide about the relationship between
two variables
Excessive rely on predicted behavior

3. Experimental Method

Correlation method is very useful in making

accurate prediction but it is less useful in
attaining the goal of why question
The why question leads to the phenomena
of explanation which is very necessary in the
field of social psychology
To answer the why, social psychologists use
another research method that is called
Experimental Method

Cont.

In a formal experiment , the relationship between

two or more variables is investigated by
deliberately producing a change in one variable in
a situation and observing the effects of that
change on other aspects of the situation.
A method of research in which one or more
factors are systematically changed to determine
whether such variations affect one or more other
factors

Cont.

It is a scientific attempt to
see cause and effect
relationship
Experimentations involves
the following strategy: one
variable is changed
systematically, and the
effects of this changed on
one or more other variables
are carefully measured

Cont.

Experimental
Manipulation:
Experimental
manipulation is the
change that an
experimenter deliberately
produces in a situation.
The process begins with
the development of one
or more hypothesis to
test.

Cont.

Experimental research requires the responses of at

least two groups be compared with each other.
Experimental Group
A group receiving a treatment (the manipulation
implemented by the experimenter) in an experiment.
Control Group
A group that receives no treatment in an experiment.
The variable involved in a particular experiment may
be classified as independent and dependent.

Cont.

Variable: any thing which can changes its value

called variable
Independent Variables: The variable that is
manipulated by an experimenter which is often
linked to causes.
Dependant Variables: The variable that is measured
and is expected to change as a result of changes
caused by the experimenters manipulation, which is
often linked to effects.

Cont.
Control:
Another important characteristic of the
experimenter method is control. it means that
only independent variable be allowed to
change. Factor other than I.V ,which might
affect the dependent variable, must be held
constant.
In an experiment we must control conditions ,
which would give misleading results.

Cont.
Random Assignment to condition:
To make the experiment a valid test of the
hypothesis , the researcher need to add a final step to
the design properly assigning participants to receive
a particular treatment.
The solution is random assignment to conditions.
A procedure in which participants are assigned to
different experimental groups or conditions on
the basis of chance and chance alone is called
random assignment to condition.

Cont.

Extraneous Variables: There are some variables

which can also effect the results of the experiment but
experimenter does not want them to effect the
dependent variables e.g. in the above mentioned
example lack of coeducation institution in some
particular region can not create a change in the people
attitude even after taking effects from media or due to
lack of financial sources people can not go for studies
in coeducation, these two factors can work as
extraneous variables unless they are controlled by the
experimenter in both groups

Cont.
Merits:The experimental method has the following
advantages:
Very useful to infer the cause and effect
relationship
With the help of this method psychologists
gain better understanding of behavior by
exerting control over stimuli.

Cont.

i.
ii.

iii.
iv.

Demerits:Expensive Method
A serious limitation: we can not easily
manipulate mobs or large groups of people
that might lead to mental illness
Artificial Environment
Humans react differently when they know
they are participating in an experiment

Cont.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Need highly expert and skilled experimenter

Experimenter Bias
May involve ethical concerns
Might not be able to apply to outside the
laboratory settings.

Survey Method

A method of research in which

large numbers of persons answer
questions about their attitudes or
behavior
A method in which information
are gathered from a large
number of people either through
written questionnaires or
through interviews.
A sample of people chosen to
represent some larger group of
interest (population)

Cont.

In survey Method
information from
people can be taken by
following methods:
Written questionnaire
Recording
Telephonic survey
Face to Face/Direct
Interview

Cont.

i.
ii.

Questionnaire: A list of statements either in

form of question or simple statement which
are the direct source of taking information
about some particular phenomena
Types of Questionnaire:
Open-Ended Questionnaire
Fixed-Ended Questionnaire

Cont.

i.

ii.

i.
ii.

Merits:
Information from a large group of people in
short period
Can be less expensive in some cases
Demerits:
Non-serious attitudes of people
Can be expensive in some cases

The Case Study Method

An in-depth study of an
individual in order to understand
that individual better and to
make inferences about people in
general.
Every human being is unique;
each of us possess a distinctive
combination of traits, abilities;
and characteristics.

The Case Study method

Among the oldest research methods.

A Research method that focuses on the life history,
attitudes, behavior, and emotions of a single
individual or organizations, or group of people.
It is possible to learn anything about human behavior
from detailed study of one individual or perhaps a
few person.
Information taken from a case study is then used by
the researchers to formulate principles, or to reach at
conclusions that may be applied to large number.

Cont.

When the behavior involved is very unusual,

the case study method can be quite revealing.
Researcher asks people what they have done
in past ,rather than observing the behaviors of
interest.

Cont.
Advantages:
In depth, detailed knowledge
Individuals can give such fruitful knowledge, which leads to
general truths.
Disadvantages:
Unrepresentative information, common source of mistaken
judgment.
If persons are unique, we cant generalize the results.
There is repeated contact with the individual, being studied,
so researcher's bias may be there( lose scientific objectivity)

Interview Method

i.
ii.
iii.

An interview is a conservation between two or

more people (the interviewer and the interviewee)
where questions are asked by the interviewer to
obtain information from the interviewee.
Types of Interview
Structured
Unstructured
Semi structured

Interviews

Structured Interview
Has a formalized , limited set of questions which are
asked during interview.
Semi Structured Interview
Flexible ,allowing new questions to be brought up
during the interview as a result of what the
interviewee says.
Unstructured Interview
Questions can be changed or adapted to meet the
respondents intelligence , understanding or beliefs.

Questions

Open ended Questions

is designed to encourage a full, meaningful
answer using the subjects own knowledge and
feelings. e.g Tell me about your self?
Close ended Questions
Encourages a short or single word answer. e.g
Do you get on well with your teacher?
Yes No

Cont.
Advantages:
A great deal of information can be obtained in a
relatively short period of time.
Disadvantages:
Subjects are sometimes not willing to express
themselves. they may be suspicious or
uncooperative.
Interpretations could not be reliable when there is a
factor of subjectivity and personal liking,disliking.