Controller Design

Assume that the

desired transient
response is
represented by point
B with a specified
settling time.
For the current root
locus, at the specified
overshoot , we can
only get the settling
time represented by
point A.
Our goal is to speed
up the response A to B
without affecting the
percent overshoot.

Two ways to solve the problem:

1. Replace the system with a system whose root locus
intersects the desired point B.
Expensive and
counterproductive
2. Use a compensated system with additional poles and
zeros so that compensated system has a root locus
that goes through the desired pole location.
Poles and zero can be added at the low-power end
and need not interfere the power output requirement
s.
Compensating poles and zeros can be generated with
a passive or an active network.
Possible disadvantage of compensating a system is
the increase of system order with a subsequent effect
on the desired response.
Compensators can be used to improve transient
response and steady state error.

 Both transient response and steady state error

constant were related to the gain.
The higher the gain, the smaller the steady state
error, but the higher the percent overshoot.
Reducing the gain reduce overshoot but increase
the steady state error.
Transient response is improved with the addition
of differentiation while the steady state error is
improved with the addition of integration in the
forward path.

Configuration
Two configurations:

cascade
compensation and
feedback
compensation.
With cascade
compensation, the
compensating
network, G1(s) is
placed at the lowpower end of the
forward path in
cascade with the
plant.
With feedback
compensation, the
compensator, H1(s) is
placed in the
feedback path.

Compensator
Compensators that use pure integration for
improving steady-state error or pure differentiation
for improving transient response are defined as ideal
compensators.
Ideal compensators must be implemented with
active networks. E.g. active amplifiers and possible
additional power sources.
An advantage of ideal integral compensator is that
steady state error is reduced to zero.
Other compensators that do not use pure integration
or differentiation or active devices but adopt
passive elements such as resistor and capacitor are
not ideal compensators.
Advantages of passive networks are: less expensive,
do not require additional power sources.
Disadvantage of passive networks: steady-state error
not driven to zero.

 Systems that feed the error forward to the plant

are called proportional control systems.
Ideal integral compensator is called a
proportional-plus-integral (PI) controller.
Non-ideal integral compensator is called lag
compensator.
Ideal derivative compensator is called
proportional-plus-derivative (PD) controller.
Non-ideal derivative compensator is called lead
compensator.

IMPROVING TRANSIENT
RESPONSE
2 ways to improve transient response of a
feedback control system using cascade
compensation :
1) Ideal Derivative Compensation
- PD controller
2) Lead Compensation : approximates
differentiation with a
passive network
- Lead compensator
objective : to design a response that has a
desirable percent overshoot and a shorter
settling time than the uncompensated system.

Ideal Derivative Compensation

(PD)
Poles and zeros can be added in the
forward path to produce a new open loop
function whose root locus goes through
the design point on the s plane.
One way to speed up the original system is
to add a single zero to the forward path.
Gc(s)=s+zc
Example below shows compensated system
by adding compensating zero at -2,-3,-4.

Uncompensated

 Each of the compensated cases has dominant

poles with the same , the percent overshoot will
be the same for each case.
The compensated, dominant closed loop poles
have more negative real parts, thus the settling
time for the compensated cases will be shorter
than the uncompensated system.
The larger the imaginary parts of the
compensated system, the smaller the peak time
is.

 Given a system below, design ideal derivative

compensator to yield a 16% overshoot with a
threefold reduction in settling time.

16% overshoot is equivalent to =0.504. Search

along the damping ratio line for an odd multiple
180 degree and find the dominant poles at
-1.205j2.064.
The settling time4 of uncompensated
system is
4
Ts

1.205

3.320

 In order to have threefold reduction in

settling time, the new settling time will be
1.107. Therefore the real part of the
4
4 second order pole
compensated dominant

3.613
Ts 1.107
is
d 3.613 tan(180 o 120.26 o ) 6.193
Imaginary part is

 Using the open loop poles and the test point

-3.613+j6.913, we obtain the sum of angles as
-275.6o.
Hence, the angular contribution required from the
compensator zero for test point to be on the root
locus is 275.6-180=95.6o.
6.913
o
o

tan(
180

95
.
6
)
of
the
compensator
zero is
The location
3.613
3.006

 PD controller.
Gc K 2 s K 1 K 2 ( s

K1
)
K2

Lead Compensation
Passive lead compensator can
approximate an active ideal derivative
compensator.
A compensator zero and a pole is result
rather than a single zero.
If the pole is farther from the imaginary
axis than zero, the angular contribution is
still positive , thus it approximates an
equivalent single zero.
Advantages: (1) no additional power
supplies (2) reduce noise due to
differentiation.

 2 1 3 4 5 (2 k 1)180

 Example: Design a lead compensator of

system below that will reduce the settling time
by a factor of 2 while maintaining 30%
overshoot.

Solution :
1) Evaluate the uncompensated settling time
- overshoot 30% equivalent to =0.358.
- Uncompensated settling time is
Ts=4/1.007=3.972 seconds.
2) Evaluate the desired settling time &
dominant pole.
- Twofold reduction, Ts=3.972/2=1.986.
Desired settling time = 1.986 second

-Desired dominant pole :

the real part : -4/Ts=-2.014.
The imaginary part is wd=2.014tan(110.98)=5.252

3) Assume compensator zero at -5,

calculate the resulting angle :
the resulting angle is =
4) Calculate the angular contribution
Thus the angular contribution required
from the compensator pole = 1805.252
172.69 =7.31o.
tan 7.31o
pc 2.014

pc 42.96

Example
A unity feedback system with the
forward transfer function
is operating with a closed-loop step
response that has 15%
overshoot. Do the following :
a)Evaluate the settling time
b)Design a lead compensator to
decrease the settling time by 3
times. Choose the compensators
zero to be at -10. Determine K value.

Ideal Integral Compensation (PI)

Improve steady state error by placing an open-loop
pole at the origin (this increase system type by one).
Type 0 system responding to a step input with a
finite error will respond with zero error if the system
is increased by one.
We will learn how to improve steady state error
without affecting the transient response.
Figure 9.3(a) shows the original system with desired
transient response generated by the close-loop poles
at A.
To increase the system type, we add a pole to the
origin. Thus the angular contribution of the open
loop poles at point A is no longer 180 0 and the root
locus no longer goes through point A as shown in
Figure 9.3(b).

Figure 9.3
Pole at A is:
a. on the root locus without compensator;
b. not on the root locus with compensator pole added;
(figure continues)

Adding a zero close to the

pole at the origin to
cancel out the angular
contribution of
compensator pole.
Thus, point A is still at the
root locus and the system
type has been increased.
Furthermore, the required
gain of the dominant pole
is about the same as
before compensation,
because the ratio of
lengths from the
compensator pole and
the compensator zero is
approximately unity.

 Thus, the steady state error is improved without

affecting the transient response.
Example (9.1):
Given the system operates
with a damping ratio 0.174,
show that the PI controller
reduces the steady state error
to zero for a step input without
affecting the transient response.
Choose a pole at the origin and
a zero at -0.1, close to the
compensator pole.
Figure 9.4
Closed-loop system: a. before compensation;
b. after ideal integral compensation

1) Analyze the uncompensated system and

determine the location of the dominant, second
order poles. Searching along the line (damping
ratio=0.174) with the root locus program, the
dominant poles are -0.694j3.926 for a gain,
K=164.6. The third pole is approximately -11.61
when K=164.6.

Uncompensated system

2) evaluate the steady state error for a unit step

input.
The gain yields Kp=8.23, hence the steady state
error is
1
1
e( )

0.108
1 K p 1 8.23
3) Adding an ideal integral compensator with
zero=-0.1
- A new root locus is obtained.
- The dominant second order poles, the third pole
beyond -10, and the gain are approximately the
same as uncompensated system.
- The gain K is now 158.2, and the fourth close loop
pole is found at -0.0902 (close enough to the zero
allow zero pole cancellation).

 Compensator with its pole at the origin is a type 1

system; unlike the uncompensated system, it will
respond to a step input with zero error.

 A method of implementing an ideal integral

compensator is shown below.
Since both proportional and integral control exist,
the controller is called PI Controller.
K2
K1 (s
)
K
K1
Gc ( s ) K 1 2
s
s
K 2 by varying
The value of zero can be adjusted
K1

Lag Compensator
If passive networks (lag compensator) are used,
the pole and zero are moved to the left, close to
the origin (Figure below part c).

a. Type 1
uncompensated
system;
b. Type 1
compensated
system;
c. compensator
pole-zero plot

 Although this method does not increase the system

type, it does yield improvement in static error constant.
Assume the uncompensated system, the static error
constant Kvo is:
Kz z ....
K vo 1 2
p1 p 2 ....
Assume the lag compensator, the new static error
( Kz1 z 2 ...)( z c )
constant is:
K vN
( p1 p 2 ...)( pc )
After inserting the compensator, the required gain K is
virtually the same since the lengths of the vectors are
approximately equal.

K vN K vo

( zc )
K vo
( pc )

 The improvement in the compensated systems

Kv over the uncompensated systems Kv is equal
to the ratio of the magnitude of the
compensator zero to the compensator pole.
In lag compensation, the compensators pole and
zero must be close to each other to minimize the
angular contribution (to keep the transient
response unchanged).
The ratio of zc to pc can be large to yield
appreciable improvement in steady state error.
Example:, if the pole is at -0.001, the zero is at
-0.01, the ratio is 10.

Example 9.2
Using Example 9.1, improve the steady state error by a
factor 0f 10 if the system is operating with a damping
ratio of 0.174 using lag compensator.
Solution:
The uncompensated system error was 0.108 with
Kp=8.23 in Example (9.1).
A tenfold improvement means a steady state error of
0.108
0.0108
10
1
e( )
0.0108
1 K p
e( )

K p 91.59

The improvement in Kp= ratio of compensator zero to

K pN 91.59
z c pole,
the compensator

11 .13
pc

K po

8.23

 Arbitrarily, select pc=0.01, then

zc=11.13pc0.111.
Sketch the root locus, search along the =0.174
line for multiple 180o. The second-order dominant
pole s are -0.678j3.836 with a gain K of 158.1.
The third and fourth close loop pole are at -11.55
and -0.101 respectively.

PID Controller
K1s K 2 K 3 s 2
K2
Gc ( s ) K 1
K3s
s
s
K1
K2
2
K 3 (s
s
)
K3
K3

- PID controller : has 2 zeros & 1 pole at

the origin.
1 zero & 1 pole at the origin PI
controller
1 zero PD controller

PID Controller

 Steps to design PID controller :

1)Evaluate the performance of the
uncompensated system to determine how
much improvement in transient response
is required.
2)Design PD controller to meet transient
response spec.
3)Simulate the system & make sure all
requirements have been met.
4)Design PI controller to yield required
steady state error
5)Determine the gains, K1, K2, K3
6)Simulate the systems & make sure all
requirements have been met.

Lag-Lead Controller

First design with lead compensator to improve transient response the

compensator to improve steady state error.

Transient Response via Gain

Adjustment

If we desire a phase margin, M,

represented by CD,
we have to raise the magnitude curve by
AB.
-- simple gain adjustment can be used to
design phase margin to present overshoot

Design
Procedure

With a chosen gain, obtain the Bode plot and the phase plot
Determine the required phase margin from the percent overshoot

(iii)Find the frequency M , on the Bode Plot that yield desired phase

(iv) Change the gain by amount AB, forcing the magnitude curve to g
0dB at M . The amount of gain adjustment is the additional gai

Find the preamplifier gain to yield 9.5% overshoot in the

transient response for a step input. Use only frequency
response method.

Choose K=3.6 to start magnitude plot at 0dB at =0.1.

9.5% overshoot implies =0.6 for the closed loop dominance poles.

The following equation yields a 59.2o phase margin for a damping ratio of 0

M tan

2
2 2 1 4 4

 Locate on the phase plot the frequency that

yields 59.2o phase margin. -180o+59.2o=-120.8o.
The value of the phase margin frequency is 14.8
rad/s.
At a frequency of 14.8 rad/s on the magnitude
plot, the gain is found to be -44.2dB. The
magnitude has to be raised to 0dB to yield the
required phase margin.
20log M=44.2
M=162.2
As the log magnitude plot was drawn for K=3.6, ,
the adjusted K=3.6x162.2=583.9
58390
The gain adjusted
G ( s ) open loop transfer function is
s s 36 s 100

Lag Compensation
The function of lag compensator on Bode plot is
to:
(1) IMPROVE STEADY STATE ERROR CONSTANT BY
INCREASING ONLY LOW FREQUENCY GAIN
(2) INCREASE THE PHASE MARGIN OF THE SYSTEM
TO YIELD DESIRED TRANSIENT RESPONSE
An uncompensated system is unstable if the gain at
180o is greater than 0dB.
The stability effect of lag compensator comes
about as the gain at 180o is reduced below 0dB.

Frequency response plots of a lag compensator, Gc(s) = (s + 0.1)/(s + 0.01)

Observation from the plot:

At low frequency, the compensator will not have influen
on the open-loop
Design Procedure
Determine the gain K for the required steady state error
draw the Bode plot

Obtained the required phase margin and add, compensator

ase angle, =5 - 12
o

Compensators zero will be a decade below of the new gain

crossover frequency of (ii).

ompensators pole is obtained by drawing a slope of -20dB/d

m the compensators zero until the line touched the 0dB.

 The transfer function of the lag compensator is

1
T
Gc ( s )
1
s
T
s

Example: Use Bode Plot to design a lag

compensator to yield a tenfold improvement in
steady state error over the gain compensated
system while keeping the percent overshoot at
9.5%.
From the previous example, a gain K of 583.9
yields a 9.5% overshoot. For the system, K v=16.22.
A tenfold improvement, Kv=162.2. Therefore, the
value of K =5839, the open loop transfer function
58390
G (s)
is
s s 36 s 100

 Bode Plot for K=5839

 The phase margin required by 9.5% overshoot is found

to be 59.2o. We increase this value of phase margin by
10o to 69.2o in order to compensate for the phase angle
contribution.
Find the frequency where the phase margin is 69.2 o.
This frequency occurs at phase angle of -180 o+69.2o
=110.8oand is 9.8rad/s.
At 9.8rad/s, the magnitude plot must go through 0dB.
The magnitude at 9.8rad/s is at +24dB. Thus the lag
compensator must provide -24dB attenuation at
9.8rad/s.
First, draw the high frequency asymptote at -24dB.
Arbitrarily select the higher break frequency to be
about one decade below the phase margin frequency
or 0.98rad/s.

 Starting at the intersection with the lag

compensators high frequency asymptote, draw a
-20dB/decade line until 0dB is reached. The lower
break frequency is found to be 0.062rad/s.
Thus, the lag compensator transfer function is
Gc ( s )

0.063( s 0.98 )
( s 0.062)

The gain is 0.063 to yield a dc gain of unity.

The compensated systems forward transfer
function is thus
G ( s)Gc ( s)

36786 ( s 0.98 )
s ( s 36 )( s 100 )( s 0.062)