Chapter 6

Chapter 6
Data Presentation
Objectives
At the end of the chapter, student should be able
to:
understand how data is presented either

through display or recorder.
understand that data can be presented in

analog or in digital form.
understand some of the basic operations of the

data presentation elements.
BETR 3423 Instrumentation System
Content
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introduction
Digital Display Principles
LED Display
CRT Display
LCD Display
EL Display
Chart Recorders
Paperless Recorders
1. Introduction
The data presentation element is the final element in

the measurement system / instrumentation system /
data acquisition system.
Its function being to communicate the measured
value of the variable to a human observer.
It is important that the measured value is presented
as clearly and easily as possible, otherwise the
value registered by the observer may be different.
Process,
Machine or
system being
measured
Input
Instrumentation System
True Value
Output
Measured Value
4
Introduction
If the data is represented for instant observation, the

device is called display device and when it is
represented for recording, in that case it is called as a
recorder.
These are also called as output devices for presentation
of information in visual .
Data
Presentation
Element
Introduction
Consider an accurate flow measurement system where

true value of flow rate is 11.3m3h-1 and the measured value
11.5m3h-1 with a measurement system error of 0.2m 3h-1.
If the observed value is 12.0m3h-1, then the observation

error is 0.5m3h-1. This is greater than the measurement
error and means that the high system accuracy is wasted.
Observation error depends on many factors:
Distance of the element from the observer.
Ambient Lighting
Eyesight, patience and skill of the observer.
A clear presentation is of major importance.

Type of Data Presentations
Light Emitting
Diode (LED)
Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT)
Digital
Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD)
Displays
Electro
Luminescence
(EL)
Analogue
Data
Presentation
Elements
Pointer Scale
Indicator
Chart
Recorder
Recorders /
Printers
Laser Printer
Paperless
Recorder
Type of Data Presentations
Data Display
If no permanent record of measured variables
is required, then displays can be used. A choice
must be made between analogue pointer and
digital displays.
Pointer-Scale Indicator
With the pointer-scale indicator, the observer must
interpolate if the pointer lies between two scale marks: thus
if the pointer lies between 9 and 10 the observer must
decide whether the measured value is 9.4, 9.5 or 9.6. Thus
an observation error of up to 0.5 units is possible.
10
2. Digital Display Principles
Digital display - a display that gives the

information in the form of characters (numbers
or letters).
There are four types of digital display technology
widely used nowadays:
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Electroluminescent Display (EL)
11
2.1 Character Displays
These are used to display the numerals 0 to

9, the letters of the alphabet A to Z in either
upper or lower case format, and a few other
symbols such as punctuation marks.
Displays showing alphabetical and numerical
information are often referred to as
alphanumeric.
12
(a) Seven-segment character format
For an example, to display

number 0-9 using sevensegment display. Each of the
segments abcdefg can be
switched individually on or off
using a seven digit parallel
binary code.
13
(b) 7x5 dot-matrix character display
Each character format is

an array of segments or
dots; these elements are
referred to as pixels. To
display a character each
pixel must be separately
switched on
and off
independently of the other
pixels.
14
2.2 Graphic Displays
Graphic displays are used to show line diagrams,

graphs, waveforms, bar charts, etc and consists of a
large number of pixels arranged in rows (along the yaxis) and columns (along the x-axis).
A typical graphic display consists of 320 x 240 = 76,800

pixels, each of an area 0.33mm x 0.33mm, giving a total
viewing area of 120mm x 92mm. To make electrical
contact with each individual pixel would required 76800
electrical connections occupying an area of a few square
meters!
Connections done through method of multiplexing.

15
Method of Multiplexing
The principle of pixel matrix multiplexing is based
on time division multiplexing, where one pair of
conductors can serve many pixels by suitable
timing of the voltage across the conductors. The
pixels are arranged in a matrix of columns (x) and
rows (y).
Each column (x) and each row (y) has an electrical
conductor giving a corresponding matrix of
conductor.
16
Each pixel, with position coordinates

(x,y)
is
connected
across
the
corresponding x and y conductors at
their point of intersection.
1. The voltage applied to a column
conductor will present at all of the
pixels in that column; the voltage
applied to a row conductor will
present at all of the pixels in that row.
2. The minimum voltage required to
turn on a pixel is Vs.
3. The column voltages Vx switch
between 0 and +Vs/2.
4. The row voltages Vy switch between
0 and Vs/2.
5. A pixel at position (x,y) is switched
on during a time interval when the
column voltage is +Vs/2 and the row
voltage is Vs/2.
17
The pixel (2,1) is switched on during

time interval 0 to T/3.
The pixel (1,1), (2,1), (1,3), and (2,3)
are switched on during time interval
T/3 to 2T/3.
Pixel (3,2) is switched on during time
interval 2T/3 to T.
In this example there are six electrical
conductors for nine pixels so that the
saving in external connections is
small.
However, in the above example of a
320x240 matrix, 320+240 = 560
external connections are required to
address 76800 pixels. All waveforms
are repeated every repetition period T;
this is to refresh the display.
Provided T is sufficiently short, the
brightness of the screen remains
reasonably constant without flicker.
18
3. LED Display
LEDs have high power consumption, which makes

them only suitable for small-scale character
displays; they are not used in graphic displays.
LED have the special property that when forward

biased they emit electromagnetic radiation over
a certain band of wavelengths. Two commonly
used LED materials are gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP), which emits red light, and
Galluim Phosphide (GaP), which emits green or
yellow light.
19
In both cases the luminous intensity Iv of the diode light

source increases with current iF, for diode the
relationship is approximately linear. (Figure (c))
Figure (d) shows the relationship between relative
luminous intensity and wavelength .
The light emitted by a GaAsP (red) diode is distributed
over a narrow band of wavelengths centered on
0.655m.
The light emitted by a GaP (green) diode is distributed
over a narrow band of wavelengths centered on
0.560m.
The human eye is far more sensitive to green light than
red, so a green LED of low radiant power may appear as
bright as a red LED of much higher radiant power.
20
The response of LEDs to step changes in iF is extremely

fast; turn-on and turn off times of 10ns are typical.
When switched ON, a typical GaAsP diode requires a

forward current iF of around 20mA corresponding to a
luminous intensity Iv of 4.0mcd (millicandela), and a
forward voltage VF of 2.2V.
Figure (e) shows a simple circuit for achieving this, using

a series resistor R of 140.
For a 1 input, Vs =5V, iF = (5-2.2)/140 = 20mA and the

diode is ON.
21
(a) Forward biased LED

(d) Relative intensity wavelength (GaAsP)
(b) Current/voltage (GaAsP)
(e) Series Resistor
(c) Luminous intensity/current (GaAsP)
22
A seven segment LED display device consists of eight

individuals LEDs, one for each segment and one for the
decimal point. There are two possible methods of
interconnection, common anode or common cathode (figure
(f)).
Using the above data, the power consumption of an individual
pixel is 2.2V x 20mA = 44mW; the total power consumption of
the seven segment display is therefore 320mW.
This high power consumption means that LEDs are only
suitable for character displays and are unsuitable for graphic
displays.
(f) Interconnection Methods

23
4. CRT Display
CRTs are used for character and graphics displays,

monochrome and colour, but have the disadvantage of
high operating voltages and are high volume bulky
devices.
CRT are used to create large-scale displays. These

devices are often referred to as monitors.
A visual display unit (VDU) is

a combination of a CRT display
and a keyboard.
24
Basic CRT Operation
Electrons are emitted at the cathode and

accelerated towards the anode.
A third electrode, called a grid or modulator, is
placed between cathode and anode: by altering the
potential of the modulator the number of electrons in
the beam, the beam current can be adjusted.
The beam then passes through a focusing system
followed by X and Y deflection system: the focusing
system can be electromagnetic or electrostatic.
25
The electron beam is brought to a focus on the

inside surface of the screen, which is coated with a
large number of phosphor dots. These dots form the
pixels.
Phosphors are semiconductor materials which
emit visible radiation in response to the impact
of electrons: a spot of light therefore appears on
the screen.
26
A sudden increase followed by a sudden decrease, the light emission

does not fall instantaneously but there is a gradual reduction called
phosphorescence decay.
The corresponding decay time is called the persistence of the
phosphor; phosphors with a wide range of persistence are available.
Ranging from less than 1s (very short) to greater than 1s (very long).
In refresh displays the phosphors must be refreshed or re-energised
every time the phosphorescence decays to a certain level: this is
necessary to obtain a stationary pattern on the screen with minimum
flicker.
In the more expensive storage displays, the display is retained on the
screen and refreshment is not necessary.
27
A monochrome display is obtained with a non-storage CRT and a

standard 312 line raster.
In a raster-type display constant amplitude sawtooth deflection
voltages are applied to both X and Y plates.
The period of Y voltage the time taken for the display to move
from the top to the bottom of the screen, is relatively long, normally
20ms = 50Hz refreshment rate.
The period of X voltage the time for each traverse across the
screen is 312 times shorter (64s).
The resulting motion of the spot on the screen is shown in the
figure. 312 horizontal lines are traced out during the movement of
the spot from top to bottom of the screen.
28
A colour display produces images containing a wide

range of colours. The screen of a colour CRT is coated
with dots of three different types of phosphor: one
emits red light, the second green light and the third
blue light (RGB colours).
Dots of each type are arrange in equilateral triangles
called triads.
29
The monitor has three electron

guns, one for each type of phosphor.
The corresponding electron beams
are deflected horizontally and
vertically to produce a raster display
as in monochrome monitor.
As the beam traverse the screens,
the intensity of each beam is varied
according to the voltage applied to
the
corresponding
modulator
electrode.
This
creates
varying
colour
intensities at the triads and colour
images on the screen.
The colour display system can be
used to create graphic displays.
30
In a fixed format alphanumeric display character occupy

fixed position in a display and each character is built up
using a fixed 7x5 or 9x7 dot matrix format.
In a graphic display the screen contains a full matrix of
pixels, each of which can be turned on or off to produce
graphical images or pictures, alphanumeric characters at
any position on the screen or a combination of both.
CRT displays have the disadvantages
1. not flat screen technology
2. occupy more volume
3. have much higher operating voltages (around 16kV)
than LCD (around 15V)
4. power consumption is also higher in CRT than in LCD
display.
31
5. LCD Display
LCDs are used for both character and graphics

displays.
LCD
character
displays,
usually
monochrome, have much lower power consumption
than equivalent LED displays. LCD graphics
displays, monochrome and colour, are flat screen
panels and have lower operating voltages and
power consumption than equivalent CRT devices.
32
Figures below show the construction of a reflective monochrome

display using field effect or twisted nematic (TN) liquid crystal
material.
The LC material is in contact with a pair of conducting
electrodes which are transparent to light; a voltage is applied
across these to create an electric field. There are glass plates
above and below the electrodes. An x-polarising filter is situated
above the upper glass plate; this transmit only x-polarised light.
Similarly a y-polarising filter below the lower glass plate transmit
only y-polarised light.
33
Figure (a) shows the situation when the

applied voltage V=0. The molecules
near the top are lined up along xdirection. Moving downwards through
the liquid, their orientation gradually
changes so that the molecules at the
bottom are lined up along the ydirection. The light is therefore able to
pass through the y-polarised filter and
is reflected back to the observer, the
surface appearing pale grey or green.
Figure (b) shows the situation when the

applied voltage V0. In this case the
molecules remain aligned along the xdirection throughout the liquid crystal:
this means that the light remains xpolarised as it moves downward. The
light cannot pass through the lower ypolarised filter and is absorbed; the
surface appears black to an observer.
By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light
can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different
levels of gray.
34
Illumination
As
LCD panels produce no light of their own, they require an external

lighting mechanism to be easily visible. On most displays, this consists of
a cold cathode fluorescent lamp that is situated behind the LCD panel.
Passive-matrix displays are usually not backlit, but active-matrix displays
almost always are, with a few exceptions such as the display in the
original Gameboy Advance.
Recently,
two types of LED backlit displays have appeared in some

televisions as an alternative to conventional backlit LCDs. In one scheme,
the LEDs are used to backlight the entire LCD panel. In another scheme,
a set of red, green and blue LEDs is used to illuminate a small cluster of
pixels, which can improve contrast and black level in some situations. For
example, the LEDs in one section of the screen can be dimmed to
produce a dark section of the image while the LEDs in another section are
kept bright. Both schemes also allows for a slimmer panel than on
conventional displays.
35
6. EL Display
Electroluminescent displays are also flat screen and are

used for both character and graphics monochrome
displays. They have higher operating voltages and power
consumption than equivalent LCD devices but greater
contrast ratio and viewing angle.
When a voltage is applied across a phosphor material, light
is emitted. This effect is called electroluminescence.
36
Figure (a) above shows the construction of an EL display

which consists of a numbers of layers deposited on a glass
substrate.
- The first layer is a number of x-axis or column electrodes
which are electrically conductive and transparent to light.
- Then there is the matrix of phosphor elements, which is
sandwiched between two dielectric layers.
- Finally there are a number of y-axis or row electrodes
which absorbed light.
37
Each pixel is located at an intersection of an x and a

y electrode and connected across them.
The display is viewed through the glass substrate;
with no voltage across the electrodes the pixel
appears black.
If a voltage pulse, typically of height of 100V and
duration of 10s, is applied across the electrodes,
the pixel emits light.
38
The luminance of the pixel decays from an initial

value, just after the pulse of around 1000cd/m 2, with a
time constant of typically 500s.
This means that the display must be continuously
refreshed to avoid flicker. The pulse is repeated
approximately every 1000s; this enables a
continuous luminance of at least 100cd/m 2 to be
obtained.
Because the voltage is applied for only 1% of the
time, the power required for each pixel is considerably
reduced; around 100W per pixel is typical.
39
RECORDERS
A record of the time variation of the measured variables would
be essential, for example:
High Speed events, eg. A human heartbeat, which are too

fast to be followed by a human observer. Changes in the
recorded blood pressure waveform will then show clearly any
irregular or abnormal behaviour,
The monitoring of a complex process such as a gas

compressor which has a number of associated measured
variables. If the compressor breaks down, then the exact
sequence of events drop in lubricating oil pressure rise in
bearing temperature drop in delivery pressure can be found
and the cause of failure established.
40
7. Chart Recorders
Chart recorders give a record, on paper, of the

time variation of a measured variable.
These can be analogue or digital and the record
can be either a continuous line of a series of dots.
They can record up to six variables but have
limited speed of response; they also require
regular replacement of paper and pens.
41
7. Chart Recorders
The recorder may use paper strips or polar

plots. The paper moves one way and the marker
pen moves right angle to this.
42
Chart Speed is a term used to

express the rate at which the
recording paper in a strip chart
recorder moves. It is expressed in
inches/sec or mm/sec and is
determined by mechanical gear
trains. If the chart speed is known,
the period of the recorded signal
can be calculated as
Period =
A typical chart recorder

43
Example 1
The chart speed of a recording instrument is 40mm/s.
One cycle of the signal is recorded over 5mm (this
referred to sometimes as the time base). Determine
the frequency of the signal.
Ans
Period =
Therefore, period = 5/40 s/cycle =0.125s/cycle
Frequency,
= 8 cycles/sec
44
Example 2
If the frequency of a signal to be recorded with a stripchart recorder is 20Hz, what must be the chart speed
used to record one complete cycle on a 5mm of
recording paper?
Ans
Given frequency = 20Hz and time base = 5mm
Period =
, therefore 0.05 =
Chart Speed =
45
8. Paperless Recorders
Paperless recorders use LCD displays and

digital archive memory; these typically can
record four measured variables and have less
maintenance requirements than chart recorders.
They also have a fast speed of response.
46
Figure to the right shows a block

diagram of a typical paperless
recorder. The input measurement
signals are input to a multiplexer
and the selected signal is converted
into parallel digital form by an
analogue-to-digital converter for
input to a microprocessor. The
microprocessor generates the row
and column address signals
required for pixel matrix multiplexing
in graphic displays.
Input data is stored initially in RAM
and then transferred to archive
memory; past data can then be
retrieved from archive memory and
displayed on the screen.
47
9. Laser Printer
Figure (a) shows the basic layout
of a laser printer. The printer
receives input data in parallel
digital form: for character this could
be in ASCII format; for graphics it
will be in vector format, where
geometrical shapes are encoded
into numerical values.
The operation of the printer is
controlled by a computer acting as
a print controller. The controller
converts this incoming data into
bitmap image pages, each page
corresponding to an array of black
and white or coloured dots.
48
The photoreceptor drum is an array of photoconductive elements or pixels

which correspond to the above bitmap image page. Initially all of the elements are
given a positive charge, this is done by passing an electric current through the
corona wire.
The drum rotates and the controller directs a laser beam to move across the
entire photoreceptor array in a raster pattern. The laser beam is moved by a
rotating polygonal mirror and is switched on and off at high speed as it strikes
each pixel. If light hits an element, its resistance falls sharply, causing the charge
to fall to a negative value. If no light is incident, the pixel retains its positive
charge.
The result is that the drum is an array of positively and negatively charged pixels.
(an electrostatic image of the bitmap page).
49
The drum is then coated with positively charged black powder toner. The toner
clings to the negatively charged elements on the drum but not to the positively
charged elements, thus creating a toner version of the bitmap.
The sheet of paper is given a negative charge by the transfer corona wire; this
charge is greater than the negative charge of the electrostatic image so that the
paper can pull the toner powder away. The drum rolls over the sheet of paper and
the paper picks up the toner to create an exact image on the paper.
This paper is then discharged so that it can be separated from the drum and
finally passes to the fuser. This pair of heated rollers which melt any loose toner
particles so that they fuse with the paper fibers. The printing process is now
complete. The electrostatic image on the drum surface is then erased by passing
it under the discharge lamp.
50

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understand how data is presented either

understand that data can be presented in

understand some of the basic operations of the

The data presentation element is the final element in

If the data is represented for instant observation, the

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

Consider an accurate flow measurement system where

If the observed value is 12.0m3h-1, then the observation

A clear presentation is of major importance.

Type of Data Presentations

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

Type of Data Presentations

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

2. Digital Display Principles

Digital display - a display that gives the

2.1 Character Displays

These are used to display the numerals 0 to

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

(a) Seven-segment character format

For an example, to display

(b) 7x5 dot-matrix character display

Each character format is

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

2.2 Graphic Displays

Graphic displays are used to show line diagrams,

A typical graphic display consists of 320 x 240 = 76,800

Connections done through method of multiplexing.

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

Each pixel, with position coordinates

The pixel (2,1) is switched on during

LEDs have high power consumption, which makes

LED have the special property that when forward

In both cases the luminous intensity Iv of the diode light

The response of LEDs to step changes in iF is extremely

When switched ON, a typical GaAsP diode requires a

Figure (e) shows a simple circuit for achieving this, using

For a 1 input, Vs =5V, iF = (5-2.2)/140 = 20mA and the

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

(a) Forward biased LED

A seven segment LED display device consists of eight

(f) Interconnection Methods

CRTs are used for character and graphics displays,

CRT are used to create large-scale displays. These

A visual display unit (VDU) is

Basic CRT Operation

Electrons are emitted at the cathode and

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

The electron beam is brought to a focus on the

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

A sudden increase followed by a sudden decrease, the light emission

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

A monochrome display is obtained with a non-storage CRT and a

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

A colour display produces images containing a wide

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

The monitor has three electron

In a fixed format alphanumeric display character occupy

LCDs are used for both character and graphics

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System

Figures below show the construction of a reflective monochrome

BETR 3423 Instrumentation System