Heat and Mass Transfer

Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer
Study of
Heat and Work transfer
(quantitatively)
Study of
How heat flows
Thermodynamics
Heat Transfer
every activity involves
heat transfer
Page 1
Driving Potential & Resistance

Students
Interest &
Capability
Class Room Ambience
Teachers
Interest &
Knowledge
Knowledge
Transfer
Teaching Learning Process in a Class Room
DRIVING POTENTIAL
Difference between
Teachers interest + knowledge &
students interest + capability
RESISTANCE FACTORS
1. Time of lecture
2. Nature of subject
3. Ambience (conduciveness)
However, higher potential difference leads to increase in entropy
Page 2
Conduction
The transfer of energy in a solid or fluid via molecular contact
without bulk motion
MODE
Solids > Lattice vibrations

Fluids > Molecular collisions
dT
q
dx
T T0
x
PHYSICAL
PagePHENOMENON
3
MATHEMATICAL
EQUATION
Conduction (contd.)
Fourier Law of Heat Conduction
dT
q
dx
qx k
x
The heat flux, q is directly proportional to temperature gradient

The proportionality constant, k, is defined as the thermal
conductivity, a thermo physical property.
Page 4
Conduction (contd.)
Thermal Conductivity, k
Silver = 410 Wm-1K-1
METALS
NON-METALS
k/ksilver
Silver
1
Gold
0.7
Copper 0.93
Aluminum
0.86
Brass (70% Cu:30% Ni) 0.33
Platinum, Lead
0.25
Mild steel (0.1% Cu), Cast iron
Bismuth 0.07
Mercury 0.04
Page 5
k/ksilver
0.12
Air
Water
Granite, Sandstone
Average rock
Limestone
Ice
Glass (crown)
Concrete (1:2:4)
Brick
Snow (fresh or average)
Soil (sandy, dry)
Soil (8% moist)
Wood
0.19
0.0014
0.011
0.012
0.007
0.015
0.0058
0.0042
0.0038
0.005
0.002
0.0033
0.0045
Convection
Convection occurs in liquids and gases.
Energy is carried with fluid motion when convection occurs.
Q& hA(Tw Ta )
PHYSICAL
PHENOMENON
Page 6
MATHEMATICAL
EQUATION
Convection (contd.)
Newtons Law of Cooling
Q& hA(Tw Ta )
The quantity h is called the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K).
It is dependent on the type of fluid flowing past the wall and the velocity
distribution.
Thus, h is not a thermo physical property.
Page 7
Convection Process
Free convection
Gases
Liquids
501000
Forced convection
Gases
Liquids
5020,000
Convection phase change
h(W/m2-K)
225
25250
2,500200,000
Convection (contd.)
Convective Processes
Single phase fluids (gases and liquids)

Forced convection
Free convection, or natural convection
Mixed convection (forced plus free)
Convection with phase change

Boiling
Condensation
Page 8
Radiation
Energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic waves
A,Ts
E& Ts
PHYSICAL
PHENOMENON
Page 9
MATHEMATICAL
EQUATION
Radiation (contd.)
Stefan-Boltzman Law
E&b T
4
s
The emissive power of a black body over all wave

lengths is proportional to fourth power of temperature
Page 10
One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Heat flow out
[Aq]x+x
Heat flow in
g
[Aq]x
Net rate of heat

gain by conduction
[Aq]x [Aq]x+ x
Page 11
Rate of energy
generation
+
+
A x g
=
=
Rate of increase
of internal energy
A x c p
1 [ Aq ]x x [ Aq ]x
T ( x, t )
g c p
A
x
t
T ( x, t )
t
One Dimensional Heat Conduction (contd.)

Heat flow out
[Aq]x+x
Heat flow in
[Aq]x
1 [ Aq ]x x [ Aq] x
T ( x, t )
g c p
A
x
t
As x 0, the first term on the LHS, by definition, becomes the derivative of
[Aq] with respect to x
1
T ( x, t )
Aq g c p
A x
t
Page 12
1
T
T ( x, t )
Ak
g c p
A x
x
t
One Dimensional Heat Conduction (contd.)

Rectangular Coordinates
T
T ( x, t )
k g c p
x x
t
n=0
Cylindrical Coordinates
1 T
T (r , t )
rk g c p
r r
r
t
n=1
Spherical Coordinates
1 2 T
T (r , t )
r k g c p
2
r r
r
t
A Compact Equation
1 n T
T (r , t )
r k g c p
n
r r
r
t
Page 13
n=2
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)
Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)
Page 14
Boundary Conditions
T1
T (x,t) | x=0 = T (0,t) = T1
T2
T (x,t) | x=L = T (L,t) = T2

0
Page 15
Boundary Conditions

Heat
Supply
Plate
Conduction
flux
q0 k
W/m
T
x
Conduction
flux
T
k
x
Page 16
T
k
x
x 0
Heat
Supply
qL
xL
W/m2
T
k
x
q0
x 0
qL
xL
Boundary Conditions

T
qa k
r
ct
u
nd
o
C x
flu
r a
Co
at
He ply
p
Su m2
/
Heat
Supply
n
t io
uc flux
nd
Page 17
n
io
at ly
e
H pp
2
Su
m
/
W
b
W/m2
Hollow Cylinder or
hollow sphere
T
r
qb
r b
T
k
r
T
k
r
qa
r a
qb
r b
Boundary Conditions

Conduction
Fluid
Flow
T
k
x
Convection
Plate
h2 (T2 T
xL
T1, h1
Convection
Convection heat flux

from the fluid at T1 to
the surface at x = 0
Conduction
T
h1 (T1 T x 0 ) k
x
x 0
Fluid
Flow
T2, h2
Page 18
xL
Conduction heat flux

from the surface at
x= 0 into the plate
T
h1 (T1 T x 0 ) k
x
x 0
Boundary Conditions

Conduction
Fluid
Flow
T
x
Convection
Plate
h2 (T2 T
xL
T1, h1
Convection

the surface at x = L
Conduction
T
h1 (T1 T x 0 ) k
x
x 0
Fluid
Flow
T2, h2
Page 19
xL

from the surface at
x = L into the plate
T
h2 (T2 T x L ) k
x
xL
Boundary Conditions

Fluid
Flow
Hollow Cylinder or
hollow sphere
T1, h1
T
r
h2 (T2 T
r b
h1 (T1 T
Page 20
) k
r a
T
r
Heat
Supply
r a
Fluid
Flow
T2, h2

the surface at r = a
r b

from the surface at
r= a into the plate
T
h1 (T1 T r a ) k
r
r a
Boundary Conditions

Fluid
Flow
Hollow Cylinder or
hollow sphere
T1, h1
T
r
h2 (T2 T
r b
h1 (T1 T
Page 21
) k
r a
T
r
Heat
Supply
r a
Fluid
Flow
T2, h2

the surface at r = b
r b

from the surface at
r= b into the plate
T
h2 (T2 T r b ) k
r
r b
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Rectangular Coordinates
2T
0
2
x
Governing Equation
T ( x) c1 x c2
T2 T1
T ( x)
x T1
L
0
T = T1
Page 22
L
T = T2
K . A.(T1 T2 )
Qx
L
L
R
K .A

Cylindrical Coordinates (Solid Cylinder)
g0
1 d dT (r )
r
r dr
dr
k
dT ( r )
0
dr
Solving,
T = T1
Page 23
T = T2
at r 0
Governing Equation
T (r ) T2 at r b
g0
T (r )
r c1 ln r c2
2k
2
g0
r
T (r )
1 T2
4k
b
dT (r ) g 0 r
q(r ) k
dr
2

Cylindrical Coordinates (Solid Cylinder)
Solved Example
For r=1cm
g0 = 2 x 108 W/m3
k = 20 W/(m.C)
T2 = 100 C
b
What will be the

1. Centre temperature T(0)
2. Heat flux at the boundary surface (r=1cm)
Equations to use (derive)
T = T1
Page 24
T = T2
g
T (r ) 0
4k
q(r )
g0r
2
2
r
1 T2
b
Solution
T(0) = 350 C
q(r) = 106 W/m2

Cylindrical Coordinates (Hollow Cylinder)
Determination of Temperature Distribution
Mathematical formulation of this problem is
d
dr
b
T2
T1
0
Page 25
dT ( r )
r dr 0
in a < r < b
T (r ) c1 ln r c2
T2 T1
Solving, c1
ln(b / a )
ln(a )
c2 T1 (T2 T1 )
ln(b / a )
T ( r ) T1 ln(r / a )
T2 T1
ln(b / a )

Expression for radial heat flow Q over a length H
The heat flow is determined from,
dT (r )
Q q (r ).area k
2 rH
dr
k 2 Hc1
a
Since,
b
T2
2 kH
Q
(T1 T2 )
ln(b / a )
T1
0
Page 26
dT (r ) / dr (1 / r )c1
Rearranging,
r
T T2
Q 1
R
ln(b / a )
where, R
2 kH

Expression for thermal resistance for length H
ln(b / a )
R
2 kH
Above equation can be rearranged as,
ln(b / a ) (b a ) ln[2 bH /(2 aH )]

R
2 kH
(b a ) 2 Hk
b
T2
t
R
kAm
T1
0
Page 27
where, Am
A1 A0
ln( A1 A0 )
here, A0 = 2aH =area of inner surface of cylinder

A1 = 2bH =area of outer surface of cylinder
Am = logarithmic mean area
t = b a = thickness of cylinder

Spherical Coordinates (Hollow Sphere)
Expression for temperature distribution
The mathematical formulation is given by,
d 2 dT (r )
r
0
dr
dr
a
Page 28
in a < r < b
c1
T ( r ) c2
r
ab
(T1 T2 )
where, c1
ba
bT2 aT1
c2
ba
a br
b ra
T (r ) .
.T1 .
.T2
r ba
r ba

Spherical Coordinates (Hollow Sphere)
Expression for heat flow rate Q and thermal resistance R
Heat flow rate is determined using the equation,
dT (r )
Q ( 4 r ) k
dr
c1
2
(4r ) k 2 4kc1
r
ab
from last slide
c1
(T1 T2 )
ba
2
using,
b
Page 29
ab
T1 T2
Q 4 k
(T1 T2 )
ba
R
ba
where, R
4 kab
Composite Medium
BRICK WALL
REFRACTORY LINING 2
FURNACE
REFRACTORY LINING 1
Example (Furnace Wall)
FURNACE WALL
Page 30
Ambient
Composite Medium
Example (Condenser Water Tube)
Tube Wall
Scale
Cooling Water
Condensing Medium (Steam)

Page 31
Composite Medium
Composite Slab (resistance in series)
L1
L2
Fluid
Flow
Tb, hb
L3
Ta
T0
T1
Tb
T2
Fluid
Flow
T3
Ta, ha
Ta
T1
T0
Ra
R1
R2
R3
Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 Tb
Q
Ra
R1
R2
R3
Rb
Ra
Page 32
Tb
T3
T2
L
1
L
L
1
; R1 1 ; R2 2 ; R3 3 ; Rb
Aha
Ak1
Ak 2
Ak3
Ahb
Rb
Ta Tb
R
R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Composite Medium
Composite Slab (resistance in parallel)
Insulated
T1 T2
Q
R
B
T1
T2
Insulated
T1
RA
RB
Rc
Page 33
RD
R R A Req. p RE
1
Req. p
RE
T2
1
1
1
RB RC RD
Composite Medium
Composite Cylinder
Ta
Ra
k2
ha
T1
T0
R1
R3
Rb
Q
Ra
R1
R2
R3
Rb
k3
k1
hb
Ra
1
1
r
1
r
; R1
ln 1 ; R2
ln 2
2r0 Hha
2 Hk1 r0
2 Hk 2 r1
R3
1
r
1
ln 3 ; Rb
2 Hk3 r2
2r3 Hhb
Q
Page 34
R2
Tb
T3
T2
Ta Tb
R
R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Composite Medium
Composite Spheres
Ta
Ra
R1
k1
k3
hb
R3
Rb
Ra
1
1 r1 r0
1 r2 r1
;
R
;
R
1
2
4r02 ha
4 k1 r1r0
4k 2 r2 r1
R3
1 r3 r2
1
; Rb
4 k3 r3 r2
4r32 hb
Q
Page 35
R2
Tb
T3
T2
Q
Ra
R1
R2
R3
Rb
ha
k2
T1
T0
Ta Tb
R
R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Composite Medium
r1
T1
ro
Convection
into an
ambient at
T,h0
Heat Loss, q
Critical Thickness of Insulation
rc
Insulation Radius, r
Page 36
Composite Medium
Critical Thickness of Insulation
The rate of heat loss Q from the tube is given by
Convection
into an
ambient at
T,h0
r1
T1
ro
Ti T
Q
Rins R0
Rins
1
r
ln 0
2kH ri
2kH (Ti T ) 1
dQ
k
2
2
dr0
ln(r0 / ri ) k /(h0 r0 ) r0 h0 r0
For Cylinder
r0c
Page 37
1
R0
2 r0 Hh0
k
h0
For Sphere
r0 c
2k
h0
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Cylinder)
Calculate,
1. Heat loss from tube for length H=10m
2. Temperature drops resulting in thermal
resistances
cm
7.6 cm
Determination of heat loss

Ta=330C
ha=400 W/(m2.C)
Insulation
t =2 cm
K=0.2 W(m.C)
Ra
1
1
2r0 Hha 2 0.025 10 400
Ra 1.59 10 3 C / W
K = 15 W/(m C)
Ambient air
Tb=30C
hb= 60 W/(m2.C)
Page 38
Ta Tb
Q
Ra R1 R2 Rb
R1
1
r
1
3.8
ln 1
ln
2Hk1 r0 2 10 15 2.5
R1 0.44 10 3 C / W
Composite Medium
Calculate,
resistances
cm
7.6 cm
Determination of heat loss

Ta=330C
ha=400 W/(m2.C)
R2 33.65 10 3 C / W
Insulation
t =2 cm
K=0.2 W(m.C)
Rb 4.2110 3 C / W
R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb 39.89 10 3 C / W
K = 15 W/(m C)
Ambient air
Tb=30C
hb= 60 W/(m2.C)
Page 39
330 30
7521 W
3
39.89 10
Composite Medium
Calculate,
resistances
cm
7.6 cm
Determination of temperature drops

Ta=330C
ha=400 W/(m2.C)
Q
Insulation
t =2 cm
K=0.2 W(m.C)
Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 Tb
Ra
R1
R2
Rb
Thotgas QRa 12.0C
Ttube QR1 3.3C
Tinsulation QR2 253.0C
K = 15 W/(m C)
Ambient air
Tb=30C
hb= 60 W/(m2.C)
Page 40
Toutside QRb 31.7C
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
GYPSUM SHEATH
2 x 4 wood studs have actual dimensions of

4.13 x 9.21 cm with k = 0.1 W/m.C
Calculate,
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
2. R value of the wall
Outside Air Convection

h=15 W/m2 C
Thermal resistance model

COMMON BRICK, k =0.69
k=0.96
k=0.48
8cm
1.9cm
INSULATION, k=0.04
1.9cm
Two parallel heat flow paths are possible

1. Through the studs
2. Through the insulation
40.6 cm
Rsheath
Inside Air Convection

h=7.5 W/m2 C
2x 4 STUDS
Rbrick
Tair
outside
Rconvection
outside
Page 41
Note: k is expressed in W/m C
Rinsul
outside
Rsheath
inside
Tair
inside
Rconvection
Rsheath
outside
Rstud
Rsheath
inside
inside
Composite Medium
Calculate,
GYPSUM SHEATH

h=15 W/m2 C
Heat flow through the studs

Area = 0.0413m2/unit depth

k=0.96
k=0.48
8cm
1.9cm
INSULATION, k=0.04
1.9cm
40.6 cm
h=7.5 W/m2 C
2x 4 STUDS
Heat flow occurs through 6 thermal resistances

1. Convection Resistance outside of brick
2. Conduction resistance in brick
3. Conduction resistance through outer sheet
4. Conduction resistance through wood stud
5. Conduction resistance through inner sheet
6. Convection resistance on inside
Recall,
Rconvection 1 / hA
Rconduction x / kA
Rtotal 1.614 2.807 0.48 22.3 0.96 3.23 31.39C / W

Page 42
Composite Medium
Calculate,
GYPSUM SHEATH

h=15 W/m2 C

k=0.96
k=0.48
Heat flow through the insulation

8cm
1.9cm
INSULATION, k=0.04
1.9cm
40.6 cm
h=7.5 W/m2 C
2x 4 STUDS
The five of the materials are same, but the

resistances involve different area terms, i.e.,
40.6 - 4.13 cm instead of 4.13 cm.
Thus the total resistance of the insulation

section is given below
Rtotal 7.337 C / W
Page 43
Composite Medium
Calculate,
GYPSUM SHEATH

h=15 W/m2 C

k=0.96
k=0.48

Overall resistance is obtained by combining
the parallel resistances as calculated earlier.
8cm
1.9cm
INSULATION, k=0.04
1.9cm
Roverall
40.6 cm
h=7.5 W/m2 C
5.947C / W
Overall heat transfer coefficient is found by,
2x 4 STUDS
q UAT
U
Page 44
1
(1 / 31.39) (1 / 7.337)
T
Roverall
(here, A = 0.406m2)
1
1
0.414W / m 2 C
RA (5.947)(0.406)
Composite Medium
Calculate,
GYPSUM SHEATH

h=15 W/m2 C

k=0.96
k=0.48
2. R Value of the wall

8cm
1.9cm
INSULATION, k=0.04
The resistance of the wall is calculated using

the overall heat transfer coefficient, as given
below:
1.9cm
40.6 cm
h=7.5 W/m2 C
2x 4 STUDS
Page 45
Rvalue
1
1

2.414C.m 2 / W
U 0.414
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Critical Thickness of Insulation)
Calculate, the critical thickness of rubber and the
maximum heat transfer rate per metre length of
conductor.
The temperature of rubber is not to exceed 65 C (due
to heat generated within).
Ambient at
30C, 8.5 W/m2K
Critical thickness
r0 c k / ho 0.155 / 8.5 0.0182 m

r = 5mm
Maximum heat transfer rate
Rins
1
r
1
0.0182
ln 0
ln
1.32
2kH ri 2 0.155 0.005
C /W m
Rubber
k = 0.155 W/mK
1
1
R0
1.02 C / W m
2r0 Hh0 2 0.0182 8.5
Q
Page 46
Ti T
65 30
14.89 W / m
Rins R0 1.32 1.02
Heat Source Systems

Plane wall with heat generation
Expression for mid plane temperature is given
by,
g 2
T0
L Tw
2k
x=0
q = heat generated
per unit volume
Tw
x
Tw
L
L
Page 47
The temperature distribution can also be written

in alternative form as:
T Tw
x
1
T0 Tw
L
Conduction-Convection Systems
Fins / Extended Surfaces
Necessity for fins
Biot Number
hx ( x / k )
k
1/ h
Internal Conductive resistance

Surface Convective resistance
FIN TYPES
Page 48
LONGITUDINAL
RECTANGULAR FIN
RADIAL FIN
Governing Equation (Rectangular Fin)
Net Heat Conducted Heat Convected = 0
dqconv hPdx(T T )
t
base
qx
qx+dx
x
dx
L
Page 49
[ Aq x Aq x dx ] hPdx(T T ) 0
Aq x Aq x dx
hP(T T ) 0
dx
d
Aq x hP (T T ) 0
dx
d
dT
kA
hP (T T ) 0
dx
dx
d 2T hP
(T T ) 0
2
dx
kA
d 2
2
m
0
2
dx
where,
hP
m
kA
&
T T
Boundary Conditions
LONG FIN
d 2 ( x)
2
m
( x) 0 in x 0
2
dx
( x) T0 T 0 at x 0
( x) 0
as x
SHORT FIN
(end insulated)
d 2 ( x)
2
m
( x) 0 in 0 x L
2
dx
(x) T0 T 0
at x 0
d (x)
0
dx
Page 50
SHORT FIN
( end not insulated)
at x L
d 2 ( x)
m 2 ( x) 0 in 0 x L
2
dx
(x) T0 T 0
at x 0
k
d (x)
he ( x) 0 at x L
dx
Types of Fin Boundaries
Type of FIN
boundary
Long Fin
(TL= T)
Short Fin
(end insulated)
Temperature Distribution
Heat transferred by fin
T T
Tb T
e-mx
(Tb-T)(hPkA)0.5
Cosh m(L-X)
Cosh (mL)
(hPkA)0.5 (Tb-T) tanh (mL) *
Cosh[m( L X )] (hL / mk ) Sinh[m( L X )] (T T ) tanh(mL) ( hL / mk ) (hPkA) 0.5

Short Fin
b
1 (hL / mk ) tanh(mL)
(end not insulated)
Cosh(mL) (hL / mk ) Sinh(mL)
Specified End
Temperature
At x=L; T=TL
TL T
Sinh(mx) Sinh[m( L x)]
Tb T
Sinh(mL)
[(Tb T ) (TL T )]
* For higher values of mL (i.e., m=4), tanh mL = 0.999 1.

Thus Qshort fin Qlong fin for higher values of mL
Page 51
Cosh(mL) 1
(hPkA) 0.5
Sinh(mL)
Performance Parameters
Fin Efficiency
Q fin
Actual heat transfer through fin
Ideal heat transfer through fin if entire

Qideal
fin surface were at fin base temperature , T0
In practical applications, a finned heat transfer surface is composed of the
finned surfaces and the unfinned portion. In such cases total heat transfer is used.
Qtotal
= Qfin + Qunfinned
= af h 0 + ( a af ) h 0
Where, a = total heat transfer area (i.e., fin surface + unfinned surface)
af = heat transfer area of fins only
Qtotal
= [+(1-)] a h 0 a h 0
Where, = +1 = area weighted fin efficiency

= af / a
Page 52
Fin Efficiency,
Fin Efficiency
Each curve is specific for

specific fin configuration
L (2h/kt)0.5
Page 53
Fin efficiency curves are available for fins of

various configuration (eg. Axial, circular disk
fins of various length, thickness etc)
Fin Effectiveness
Effectiveness
Q with fin
Q without fin
Although the addition of fins on a surface increases surface area, it also increases
thermal resistance over the portion of the surface where fins are attached. Therefore
there may be situations in which the addition of fins does not improve heat transfer.
Pk / (Ah) > 1
Page 54
(to justify usage of fins)
Solved Example
A steel rod is exposed to ambient air. If one end of the
rod is maintained at a temperature of 120 C, calculate
the heat loss from the rod
The condition for other end of the rod is not specified
explicitly. By considering L/D ratio, it appears that a
long fin assumption is applicable. Using the simplest
analysis to solve, computing mL:
Diameter = 2cm
Length = 25 cm
k = 50 W / m. C
Tbase=120C
Page 55
Tamb = 20C
h = 64 W / m2. C
hP
hD
4h
4 64
kA ( / 4) D 2 k kD 50 0.02
m 16 and mL 16 0.25 4
m2
Therefore, expression for Qlong fin can be used.
Q Tb T hPkA Tb T (D) D 2 kh
4
120 20
(0.02) 3 50 64 25.1 W
2
Solved Example (Fin Efficiency)
L
t
CIRCULAR DISK FIN
Circular disk fins of constant thickness are attached on a 2.5 cm OD

tube with a spacing of 100 fins per 1m length of tube.
Fin Properties: Aluminium k = 160 W / m.C, t = 1mm L = 1 cm
Tube wall temperature = 170 C; Ambient temperature = 30 C
Heat transfer coeff. of ambient , h = 200 W/m2. C.
Calculate,
1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
Fin Efficiency,
Fin Efficiency
Page 56
Fin efficiency is determined using the graph shown aside.

The following parameters are calculated, firstly:
ro/ri
L (2h/kt)0.5
2h
2 200
1 10 2
0.5
kt
160 10 3
ro 1.25 1
1.8
ri
1.25
The fin efficiency is determined from graph
0.9
Calculate,
Area Weighted Fin Efficiency

t
CIRCULAR DISK FIN
Tube OD = 2.5 cm
100 fins per 1m tube length
kfin = 160 W/mC
t = 1mm; L = 1cm
Ttube = 170C; Tamb = 30C
hamb = 200 W/m2. C
Ratio of heat transfer area for fin to the total heat transfer area,
Fin Surface per cm of tube length = 2(r02-ri2) = 2[2.252-1.252]
= 21.99 cm2
Total heat transfer surface per cm of tube length
= 2 (r02-ri2) + 2ri (1 t)
= 2[2.252-1.252] + 2(1.25)(1 0.1)
= 29.06 cm2
= af / a = 21.99 / 29.06 = 0.757
Area Weighted Fin Efficiency, = +1 = 0.757(0.9) + 0.243
= 0.924
Page 57
Calculate,
Heat lost to ambient per 1m length of tube

t
CIRCULAR DISK FIN
Tube OD = 2.5 cm
100 fins per 1m tube length
kfin = 160 W/mC
t = 1mm; L = 1cm
Ttube = 170C; Tamb = 30C
hamb = 200 W/m2. C
Page 58
Total heat transfer surface a per 1m of tube length

x 100 cm2 = 0.29 m2
a = 29.06
Q = ah0 = 0.924 x 0.29 x 200 (170 30) = 7503 W
Heat lost per 1m length of tube with no fins

Qno fin = 2rih0 = 2 x 0.0125 x 200 x (170 30) = 2199 W
Clearly, the addition of fins increases the heat dissipation by a

factor of about 3.4
Transient Conduction
If the surface temperature of a solid body is suddenly altered, the
temperature within the body begins to change over time.
Variation of temperature both with position and time makes determination of
temperature distribution under transient condition more complicated.
In some situations, variation of temperature with position is negligible under
transient state, hence the temperature is considered to vary only with time.
The analysis under the above assumption is called lumped system
analysis.
Biot Number, Bi = (hx) / k
Lumped System Analysis is applicable only when Bi < 0.1
Page 59
Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance

Q
Lumped Heat Analysis
The convective heat loss from the body (shown aside) has its
magnitude equal to decrease in internal energy of solid.
Q hA(T T ) pcV
Volume V
Area A
dT
hA
dt
T T
pcV
T
T
On Integration,
T=T0 at t=0
T0
T
Page 60
ln(T T )
hA
t C1
pcV
Solving and rearranging,
Cth=cV
dT
dt
1/hA
T T
exp (hA / pcV ).t
T0 T

Biot Number
It is a non-dimensional parameter used to test the validity of the lumped heat
capacity approach.
Bi
internal resistance
hL c
convective resistance
k
The characteristic length (Lc) for some common shapes is given below:
Plane Wall (thickness 2L)
A.2L
Lc
L
2.A
Sphere (radius R)
( 4 / 3)R 3
R
Lc
4R 2
3
Long cylinder (radius R)
R 2 .L R
Lc
2R.L
2
Cube (side L)
L3
L
Lc
2
6L
6
The lumped heat capacity approach for simple shapes such as plates, cylinders,
spheres and cubes can be used if Bi < 0.1
Page 61

Response time of a Temperature measuring Instrument
T T
exp (hA / pcV ).t
T0 T
For a rapid response of temperature measuring device, the index, (hAt/cV) should
be large to make the exponential term reach zero faster.
This can be achieved by decreasing wire diameter, density and specific heat or by
increasing value of h.
The quantity (cV/hA) has the units of time and is called time constant of system.
Hence at time t=t* (one time constant),
T T
e 1 0.368
T0 T
At the end of time period t* the temperature difference between the body and
ambient would be 0.368 of the initial temperature difference.
In other words, the temperature difference would be reduced by 63.2 percent.
This reduction in 63.2 percent of initial temperature difference is called sensitivity
Lower the value of time constant, better the response of instrument.
Page 62
Systems with Negligible Surface Resistance

Large Flat Plate with
Negligible Surface Resistance
Ts
T0(x) for
t=0
Ts = T (t>0)
x
L
Page 63
When convective heat transfer coefficient at the surface is

assumed to be infinite, the surface temperature remains
constant at all the time (t>0) and its value is equal to that of
ambient temperature.
The systems exhibiting above said conditions are considered to
have negligible surface resistance
An important application of this process is in heat treatment of
metals by quenching, viz., the dropping of a metallic sphere
initially at 300 C into a 20 C oil bath.
Mathematical formulation of this case is :
2T
1 T
0 x L
2
x
t
T T0 ( x ) at t 0 for 0 x L (initial condition)
T Ts
at x 0 for t 0
Boundary
Conditions
T Ts
at x L for t 0
Heat flow in an Infinitely Thick Plate

Semi-infinite body
A semi-infinite body is one in which at any instant of time there
is always a point where the effect of heating / cooling at one of
its boundaries is not felt at all.
At this point the temperature remains unchanged.
Mathematical formulation is :
Semi-Infinite Plate
Ts
at t=0
Qo
To
x
2 T 1 T
2
x t
with initial and boundary conditions,
T T0 at t 0 for all x
T Ts at x 0 for all t 0
T T0 as x for all t 0
Page 64
Systems with Finite Surface and Internal Resistance

Mathematical formulation :
Infinitely Large Flat Plate
of Finite Thickness (2L)
2T
1 T
2
x
t
T T0 at t 0 (for - L x L)
at t=0
-x
x
x=-L
x=0
x=L
Page 65
T
0 at x 0 (centre line)
x
T h
(T T ) at x L
x
k
Chart Solutions of Transient Heat Conduction Problems

Heisler Charts (by Heisler, 1947)
Infinite Plate
Time History
Mid Plane
hL/k
T(x,t) - T
Ti- T
0.1
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.2
Fourier number, /L2

Page 66

Infinite Plate
Time History
Any Position, x
1
x/L
0.2
0.4
T(x,t) - T
0.6
Ti- T
0.8
0.9
1
0
Page 67
0.1
Biot Number, hL/k
100

Infinite Plate
Heat Flow
hL/k
0.001
0.01
0.05 0.1
0.5
10
20
40
50
Q/Qo
Page 68
h 2
2
Bi
Fo
k2
Where, Qo cV (To T )
Lumped System Analysis

Solved Example
Determination of Time required to cool
4
mass
5.5
V R 3
2.037 10 3
Volume
3
density 2700
Aluminium Ball
= 2700 kg/m3
c = 900 J/kg K
k = 205 W/mK
Radius
5.5 kg
Tinitial=290C
Characteristic
Length
R 3V / 4 0.0786m
R
L c 0.0262m
3
1/ 3
hA
T T
.t
exp
T0 T
cV

T 95C
T 15C
T0 290C
Tfluid = 15C
h = 58 W / m2. C
Time required to cool the

aluminium ball to 95C
Page 69
hA
3h
3 58
9.1 10 4 / s
cV cR 2700 900 0.0786
95 15
80
exp(9.1 10 4.t )
290 15 275
3.4375 exp(9.1 10 4.t )
t 1357 s

Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples
Solved Example
The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by
a thermocouple whose junction can be approximated
as a 1mm diameter sphere (shown aside)
Determine how long it will take for the thermocouple to
read 99% of initial temperature difference
Thermocouple Wire
Gas T
h=210 W/m2 C
Junction (Sphere)
D= 1mm
= 8500 kg/m3
k = 35 W/mK
c = 320 J/kg K
How long will it take for the

thermocouple to read 99 %
of Initial Temperature
difference
Page 70
Lc = V/As = (1/6)D = (1/6)x0.001 = 1.67x10-4 m

Bi = hL/k = (210x 1.67x10-4) x 35 = 0.001 < 0.1
Therefore, lumped system analysis is applicable.
In order to read 99% of initial temperature difference
Ti T between the junction and the gas, we must
T T
have
0.01
T0 T

Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples
Solved Example
The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by
a thermocouple whose junction can be approximated
as a 1mm diameter sphere (shown aside)
Determine how long it will take for the thermocouple to
read 99% of initial temperature difference
Thermocouple Wire
Time
Gas T
h=210 W/m2 C
Junction (Sphere)
D= 1mm
= 8500 kg/m3
k = 35 W/mK
c = 320 J/kg K
How long will it take for the

thermocouple to read 99 %
of Initial Temperature
difference
Page 71
T T
0.01 exp (hA / pcV).t
T0 T
hA s
h
210
1
0
.
462
s
cV cL c 8500 320 1.67 10 4
exp (0.462).t 0.01

t = 10s
Transient Conduction in
Semi-infinite Solids
Solved Example
A water pipe is to be buried in soil at

sufficient depth from the surface to prevent
freezing in winter.
What minimum depth is required to
prevent the freezing of pipe when soil is at
uniform temperature of Ti = 10 C, the
surface is subjected to a uniform temperature
of T0 = -15 C continuously for 50 days.
Also the pipe surface temperature should
Page 72
Transient Conduction in
Semi-infinite Solids
Water Pipe
(to be buried)
Solved Example
Tsurface = -15 C
?
SOIL
Tsoil = 10 C
Condition : Tpipe wall should not fall below 0 C

What burial depth is needed to
prevent freezing of the pipe ?
Page 73
Temperature Distribution in
Semi-infinite Solid
T(x,t) - Tsurface
Tinitial- Tsurface
Page 74
x
Error Function,
2 t
Determination of Burial depth
T ( x, t ) T0
0 15
( x, t )
0 .6
Ti T0
10 15
For ( x, t ) 0.6, 0.6 (from graph)
For 0.2 10 m / s and t 50 24 3600s

the error function is given by,
-6
x
x
0.538 x
2 t 2 0.2 10 -6 50 24 3600
Page 75
Determination of Burial depth
0.538 x 0.6
0.6
x
1.12m
0.538
The pipe should be buried at least to a depth of
1.12 m to prevent freezing.
Page 76
Application of Heisler Charts

Aluminium Slab
Thickness=10cm
= 8.4x10-5 m2/s
= 2700 kg/m3
c = 900 J/kg K
k = 215 W/mK
Tinitial=500C
Tfluid = 100C
h = 1200 W / m2. C
Page 77
Mid-plane Temperature and Surface

Temperature after 1 min?
Determination of Mid plane Temperature

2L=10 cm ; L = 5 cm ; t = 1min = 60 s
t/L2 = (8.4x10-5 x 60) / 0.052 = 2.016
Bi = hL/k = (1200x0.05) x 215 = 0.28
Using above two parameters in Heisler Chart,
T T
0.68
T0 T
T 100 0.68(500 100) 372C
Page 78
Determination of Surface Temperature

For x/L = 1 and Bi = 0.28,
T T
0.88
T0 T
T 100 0.88(372 100) 339.36C
Page 79
Energy Loss
h2t/k2 = (12002x8.4x10-5 x 60) / 2152 = 0.157
Bi = hL/k = (1200x0.05) x 215 = 0.28
Using above 2 parameters in Heisler Chart for
Heat flow, Q/Q0 = 0.32
Q0
cV T0 T
c(2L)(T0 T )
A
A
2700 900 0.1 400
97.2 10 J / m
6
Page 80
Heat removed per unit surface area
Q
6
0.32 97.2 10
A
6
2
31.1 10 J / m
Page 81

Heat and Mass Transfer

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Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer

Driving Potential & Resistance

Class Room Ambience

However, higher potential difference leads to increase in entropy

Solids > Lattice vibrations

Fourier Law of Heat Conduction

The heat flux, q is directly proportional to temperature gradient

Newtons Law of Cooling

The quantity h is called the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K).

Thus, h is not a thermo physical property.

Single phase fluids (gases and liquids)

Convection with phase change

The emissive power of a black body over all wave

One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Net rate of heat

One Dimensional Heat Conduction (contd.)

One Dimensional Heat Conduction (contd.)

T (x,t) | x=0 = T (0,t) = T1

T (x,t) | x=L = T (L,t) = T2

Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)

Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)

Convection BC (Third kind)

Convection heat flux

Conduction heat flux

Convection BC (Third kind)

Convection heat flux

Conduction heat flux

Convection BC (Third kind)

Convection heat flux

Conduction heat flux

Convection BC (Third kind)

Convection heat flux

Conduction heat flux

Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction

What will be the

Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Above equation can be rearranged as,

ln(b / a ) (b a ) ln[2 bH /(2 aH )]

here, A0 = 2aH =area of inner surface of cylinder

Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction

Example (Furnace Wall)

Condensing Medium (Steam)

Critical Thickness of Insulation

Determination of heat loss

2r0 Hha 2 0.025 10 400

Determination of heat loss

Determination of temperature drops

Toutside QRb 31.7C

2 x 4 wood studs have actual dimensions of

Outside Air Convection

Thermal resistance model

Two parallel heat flow paths are possible

Inside Air Convection

Note: k is expressed in W/m C

Outside Air Convection

Heat flow through the studs

COMMON BRICK, k =0.69

Heat flow occurs through 6 thermal resistances

Rtotal 1.614 2.807 0.48 22.3 0.96 3.23 31.39C / W