IPE 205

Manufacturing
Process I

Resistance Welding
Process
(Spot , Seam, Projection & Flash
Butt Welding)

Resistance Welding
Heat is obtained from the resistance of the work to the
flow of electric current in a circuit of which the work is
a part with the application of pressure.
No filler metal is needed

Fundamentals of electric resistance

welding
Two factors/variables responsible for resistance
welding:
(1) Heat

(2) pressure

Heat
H I2 R T
H = heat generated (J), I = Current (A), R = Resistance
(), T =Time (s)
Current:
H I2
Heat increase with increase of current
Low current does not give proper fusion.
High current heated the entire thickness of the work
metal between the electrodes to the plastic state; the
entire thickness reaches the fusion temperature and the
electrodes themselves deeply into the metal.

Resistance
R1: Resistance of the workpieces
R2: Contact resistance between the electrodes and
the work.
R3: Resistance between the faying surfaces of the
two metal pieces to be welded.
R2

R1

R3

For sound weld, R1 and R2 should be kept as low as possible

with respect to R3.
R1, resistance depends on the nature of the workpiece material
and thickness. If w/p material has low electric resistance (Al),

Time, T
Four definite segments or periods of timing during one
welding cycle
1. Squeeze time
2. Weld time
3. Hold time
4. Off time
Squeeze time: Time between the initial application of
the electrode pressure on the work and the initial
application of current to make the weld. At the end of
the squeeze time, the welding current is applied.
Weld time: During this period the welding current flows
through the circuit, i.e., it enters from one electrode,
passes through the work pieces and goes out from the
second electrode.
Hold time: Time during which force acts at the point of
welding after the last impulse of welding current ceases.
The electrode pressure is maintained until the metal has
somewhat cooled.

Off time: Interval from the end of the hold time to the
beginning of the squeeze time for the next
(resistance) welding cycle.

(i) It brings the various interfaces into intimate contact

and thus affects the contact resistance between the two
Pressure or Electrode Force
workpieces.
(ii) It ensures the completion of the electrical circuit
between the electrodes and through the work.
(iii) It permits the weld to be made at lower
temperatures.
(iv) It provides a forging action and thus reduces weld
porosity.
If too little electrode force is used, the contact
resistance between the two workpieces is high and
surface burning and pitting of the electrodes may
result.
If too high electrode force is used, it decreases the
contact resistance of the work metal and therefore
reduces the total heat generated between the faying
surfaces of the workpieces by the welding current.
Too high electrode force may, also, squeeze softened
hot metal between the surfaces or the work may be

Variables in Resistance Welding-

1. Current.
2. Electrode pressure.
3. Welding time.
4. Human element.
5. Welding machine characteristics.
6. Type and condition of machines.
7. Conditions of electrodes and arms.
8. Condition of the material and surfaces of
material.
9. Throat depth.
10. Throat height.

Advantages of Resistance Welding

(i) Fast rate of production.

(ii) No filler rod is needed.
(iii) Semi automatic equipments.
(iv) Less skilled workers can do the job.
(v) Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.
(vi) High reliability and reproducibility are obtained.
(vii) Elimination of warping or distortion of parts.

Disadvantages of Resistance Welding

(i) The initial cost of equipment is high.
(ii) Skilled persons are needed for the maintenance of
equipment and its controls.
(iii) In some materials, special surface preparation is
required.
(iv) Bigger job thicknesses cannot be welded.
Applications of Resistance
Welding
(i) Joining sheets, bars, rods and
tubes.
(ii) Making tubes and metal
furniture.
(iii) Welding aircraft and
automobile parts.

Spot Welding
Resistance welding process in which overlapping sheets
are joined by local fusion at one or more spots by the
heat generated, by resistance to the flow of electric
current through workpieces that are held together
under force by two electrodes, one above and the other
below the two overlapping sheets.

Procedure
Step 1: Electrodes are brought together against the
overlapping work pieces and pressure applied so that the
surfaces of the two workpieces under the electrodes come
in physical contact after breaking any unwanted film
existing on the workpieces.

Step 2: Welding current is switched on for a definite period

of time. As the current passes through one electrode and
the workpieces to the other electrode, a small area where
the workpieces are in contact is heated. The temperature
of this weld zone is approximately 815C to 930C.

Step 3: At this stage, the welding current is cut off. Extra

electrode force is then applied or the original force is
prolonged. This electrode force or pressure forges the
weld and holds it together while the metal cools down
and gains strength.

Step 4: The electrode pressure is released to remove

the spot welded workpieces.

Heat Shrinkage in Spot

Welding

Spot welding usually leaves slight depressions or indentations

on the workpieces and these are often undesirable on the show
side of the finished products such as refrigerators.
Electrodes being under pressure prevent any vertical movement
of material, which, then, naturally expands in the horizontal
plane and causes a slight ridge. After welding, as the work
cools, contraction takes place in the vertical plane, i.e., along
the line of the least resistance, thereby resulting in the concave
surface or the depression.

These depressions can

be minimized by the
following techniques.
(a) Use larger sized
electrode tips on the
show side.

Sho
w
Side

(b) On the show side use the

electrode having depression. The
hot metal conforms to this
depression and, since it is above
the surface of the surrounding
material in the job, it is more
easily removed. This method
however produces a depression
around the periphery of the weld.

Sho
w
Sid
Insulat
e ion

Sho
w
Sid
e

(c) Arrangement helps

in obtaining a
minimum of marking
on show side by
affecting current
distribution in that
part.

Heat Balance in Spot

Welding
To obtain a proper spot weld between two workpieces, the fusion
zones in the two pieces should experience the same degree of
heat and electrode force.
(a) When welding two different thicknesses of the same material, e.g.
mild steel, use a smaller (electrode) tip area on the side of bigger
thickness. This will increase current density on the side of bigger
thickness and thus help in obtaining equal degrees of fusion in the
two pieces to be welded.

(b) When welding two dissimilar metal sheets of varying

conductivity, e.g. those of a high copper content alloy and stainless
steel, use a smaller (electrode) tip area on the side of the high
conductivity alloy. This helps obtaining equal degrees of fusion by
varying current density.

Spot Weldable
Metals
Ferrous Metals
(i) Low carbon steel (mild
steel)
(ii) Hardenable steels
(iii) High speed steel
(iv) Stainless steels
(v) Coated steel sheets

Non-ferrous Metals
(i)Aluminium
(ii) Aluminium Magnesium Alloys
(iii) Aluminium Manganese
Alloys
(iv) Copper
(v) Nickel, Nickel alloys and
Monel Metal

Spot Welding Methods

(i) Direct
(ii) Indirect (or series)
(iii) Push pull

(i) Direct Welds

It is a welding method in which one or more electrodes oppose
each other, contacting both sides of the work and with the
current passing from the electrodes on one side directly
through the work into the electrodes on the other side and
back to the welding transformer.

(ii) Series Welds

It is a welding method in which two or more spots are
produced simultaneously with only one common but indirect
current path. In series welding, a portion of the secondary
current by passes (shunts) any weld nugget being formed.
This shunt current passes through one of the panels being
welded.

(iii) Push Pull Welds

A push pull system
employs
transformers
with
an
electrically
reversed
polarity
arrangement
wherein
two
transformers
complement each other
to
form
circulating
welding current circuit.
Opposing electrodes are
connected to different
transformers and are of
opposite polarity. Two
spot welds may be
obtained simultaneously.

Advantages of Spot Welding

(i) Low cost
(ii) High speed of welding
(iii) Dependability
(iv) Less skilled worker will do
(v) More general elimination of warping or
distortion of parts
(vi) High uniformity of products
(vii) Operation may be made automatic or
semiautomatic
(viii) No edge preparation is needed

Applications of Spot Welding

(i) Spot welding of two 12.5 mm thick steel plates has
been done satisfactorily as a replacement for riveting.
(ii) Many assemblies of two or more sheet metal
stampings that do not require gas tight or liquid tight
joints can be more economically joined by spot welding
than by mechanical methods.
(iii) Containers such as receptacles and tote boxes
frequently are spot welded.
(iv) The attachment of braces, brackets, pads or clips
to formed sheet metal parts such as cases, covers,
bases or trays is another application of spot welding.
(v) Spot welding finds application in automobile and
aircraft industries.

Seam Welding
Heat obtained from resistance to electric current (flow)
through the work parts held together under pressure by
electrodes.
Resulting weld is a series of overlapping resistance-spot
welds made progressively along a joint by rotating the
circular electrodes.

Principle of Operation

Seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that

circular rolling electrodes are used to produce a
continuous air-tight seam of overlapping welds.
Overlapping (spot) welds are produced by the rotating
electrodes and a regularly interrupted current.
Workpieces cleaned, overlapped suitably and placed
between the two circular electrodes, which clamp the
workpieces together by the electrode force.
Current impulse is applied through the rollers to the
material in contact with them, heat generated and
pressure from the electrodes completes the weld
As the first current impulse is applied, the power driven
circular electrodes are set in rotation and the workpieces
steadily move forward.
Throughout the welding period, the electrodes revolve
and the work passes through them at a specific speed.
Intermittent current: On for a definite length of time and
off for another definite and short period.

Different
types
seams produced
Sheet metal
parts

of

Electrode
wheel

Individual weld
nuggets

Overlapping weld
nuggets

Conventional resistance seam welding

Roll spot welding

Continuous weld
seam

Continuous resistance seam

24

Current flow control

Stitch welding: Current is put off and on quickly, a
continuous fusion zone made up of overlapping
nuggets is obtained.
Roll welding: Individual spot welds (or nuggets)
are obtained by constant and regularly timed
interruptions of the welding current.
Roll welding simply joins two workpieces whereas
stitch welding produces gas tight and liquid tight
joints.

Roller motion control

Continuous motion method:
Electrodes rotate at a constant speed
Current flows continuously or are
interrupted

Intermittent motion method:

Electrodes travel the distance necessary for each
successive
weld and then stop.
The current is then switched on and the weld made

Seam welding machines

(i) Circular: Faces of the electrode wheels are at right
angles to the throat of the machine. Used for circular
work, such as welding the heads on containers and for
flat work requiring long seams.
(ii) Longitudinal: Faces of the electrode wheels are
parallel to the throat of the machine. Used for welding
short seams in containers, etc.
(iii) Universal: Electrode wheels may be-set in either
the circular or longitudinal position by the use of a
swivel type upper head in which the upper wheel and
its bearing can be swiveled 90 degrees.

Seam Welding Equipments

1. Power Supply
2. Electrode Force and Support
3. Electrode or workpiece drive
4. Controls

Metals Welded
(i) Low-carbon, high carbon and low-alloy steels.
(ii) Stainless and many coated steels.
(iii) Aluminium and its alloys.
(iv) Nickel and its alloys.
(v) Magnesium alloys.

Advantages of Seam Welding

(i) It can produce gas tight or liquid-tight joints.
(ii) Overlap can be less than for spot or projection welds.
(iii) A single seam weld or several parallel seams may be
produced simultaneously.
Disadvantages of Seam Welding
(i) Welding can be done only along a straight or uniformly
curved
line.
(ii) It is difficult to weld thicknesses greater than 3 mm.
(iii) A change in the design of electrode wheels is required to
avoid obstructions along the path of the wheels during
welding.
Applications of Seam Welding
(i) Girth welds can be made in round,
square or rectangular parts.
(ii) Except for copper and high copper
alloys, most other metals of common
industrial use can be seam welded.
(iii) Besides lap welds, seam-welding can
be used for making butt seam welds too.

Flash Butt
Welding
Flash
produced

during the

process.

Probably,
flash
welding
process was developed from
resistance butt welding by
accident in attempts to increase
the capacity of the butt welding
machines by raising the voltage
and
applying
pressure
intermittently.

Heat
obtained
from
resistance to electric current
between the two surfaces, and
by the application of pressure
after heating is substantially
completed.

Principle of Operation

(i) Flash butt welds

are made on a
machine having one
stationary and one
opposing movable
platen, on which are
mounted the flashwelding
dies
or
clamps.
These
clamps
securely hold the
two workpieces to
be welded while
simultaneously
serving to conduct
the welding current
through
these
workpieces.

(ii)
Movable
platen
is
brought towards the one
gripped in the stationary
platen until the two come in
light
contact.
Welding
current
(with
voltage
sufficiently high) is turned
on, flashing is established.
Movable platen keeps move
with a constant speed. The
end of the workpieces burn
off
as
gradually
the
temperature
raised into
welding temperature.
(iii) Pressure of the moving
clamp is quickly increased
to forge the parts together
and expel the molten metal
later.

Weldable metal:
(i) Low carbon steels.
(ii) Medium strength and high strength low
alloy steels.
(iii) Tool steels.
(iv) Stainless steels.
(v) Aluminium alloys (with thickness greater
than 1.25 mm).
(vi) Copper alloys (with high zinc content).
(vii) Magnesium alloys.
(viii) Molybdenum alloys.
(ix) Nickel alloys.
(x) Titanium alloys.

Flash Butt Welding Equipment

(i) A main frame,
(ii) A stationary platen,
(iii) A movable platen,
(iv) Watercooled clamps,
(v) Transformer, as used on other resistance
welding machines,
(vi) Tap switch,
(vii) Electrical controls,
(viii) A flashing and upsetting mechanism.

(i) ManyAdvantages
dissimilar metals
different
melting
ofwith
Flash
Welding
temperatures can be flash welded.
(ii) Flash welding offers strength factors up to 100%.
(iii) Generally no special preparation of the weld
surface is required.
(iv) Flash welding can be used for the welding of
those highly alloyed steels which cannot be
welded satisfactorily by any other process.
This is because, in flash welding, under correctly
controlled conditions, the heating is not only even but
extremely local, so that the cooling stresses are
maintained at a minimum; this avoids hardening and
cracking in highly alloyed steels.
(v) The process is cheap, i.e., the cost of current per
weld is small.
(vi) Flash welding is faster than many other
methods.
(vii) Flash welding gives a smaller upset.

(i) The
most undesirable feature
of flash
welding is
Disadvantages
of Flash
Welding
the flashing operation during which it is impossible to
protect the welding machine and the surrounding area
from these particles, which can burn into slide way
bearings, insulation etc. This necessitates more
frequent maintenance.
(ii) The process presents a considerable fire
hazard. Operators need be protected from flying
particles.
(iii) Concentricity and straightness of
workpieces during welding is often difficult to
maintain.
(iv) Metal is lost during flashing and upsetting.
(v) Shape of the workpieces to be flash welded
should be similar.
(vi) It is generally not recommended for welding zinc
and its alloys, cast iron, lead and its alloys.

Applications of Flash
Welding
(i) Flash welding
is applied primarily in the butt
welding of metal sheets, tubing, bars, rods, forgings,
fittings etc.
(ii) Flash welding finds applications in automotive
and aircraft products, household appliances,
refrigerators and farm implements.
(iii) The process is also used for welding the band
saw blades into continuous loops, and joining of tool
steel drill, tap and reamer bodies to low carbon steel
and alloy steel shanks.
(iv) Flash welding is used to produce assemblies
that otherwise would require more costly forgings or
castings.

Projection Welding
Heat obtained from resistance to electric current flow
through the work parts held together under pressure by
electrodes.
Resulting welds are localized at predetermined points
by projections, embossments or intersections.

Projection welding
is similar
to spot
Principle
of Operation
welding
except
that
(i) The electrodes, instead of being tips as
in spot welding, are flat and relatively
large in surface area. Electrodes are
cooled as in spot welding.
(ii) Since a number of welds are made at
each operation, both the electrical power
(kVA) and mechanical pressure must be
correspondingly greater, as compared with
a spot welder.
Success of projection welding depends on
the surface preparation of the work-pieces
to be welded.
Projections, small deformations that will
touch the surface of the material to be
welded are formed on the weld areas by

These projections serve to concentrate (localize) the

welding heat at these areas and facilitate fusion without
the necessity of employing a large current.
(i) The projection in the upper piece is held in contact
with the lower piece under electrode pressure.
(ii) The current flows and being localized to the region
around the projection, heats the metal in that area to
the plastic state.
(iii) The heated and softened projection collapses under
the pressure of the electrodes thereby forming the weld.

Metals Welded
(i) Low carbon (0.20% C max) steels
(ii) Coated metals such as galvanized steel, terne
plate, tin plate, etc.
(iii) Naval brass, Monel (Ni-Cu) alloys
(iv) Stainless steel
(v) Titanium alloys

Advantages of Projection Welding

(i) Number of welds can be made simultaneously.
(ii) Projection welds can be made in metals that are too
thick to be joined by spot welding.
(iii) Scale, rust, oil and work-metal coatings interfere less with
projection welding than with spot welding.
(iv) Projection welding electrodes possess longer life
than spot welding ones because of less wear and
maintenance resulting from fusion and overheating.
(v) Show-sides of the jobs can be produced with no
electrode marking, thus making it possible to paint or plate
them without grinding.
(vi) Any two surfaces which can be brought together to give
line or point contact can be projection welded; projection
welding is not limited to sheet -sheet joints;
(vii) Projection welding locates the welds at certain
desired points.
(viii) A better heat balance can be obtained in difficult-toweld combinations of compositions and thicknesses.
(ix) Projection welding lowers the amount of current and
pressure needed to form a good bond between two surfaces.
This reduces the chances of shrinkage and distortion around

Disadvantages of Projection Welding

(i) The projection welding is limited to
combinations of metal thickness and composition
which can be embossed.
(ii) Metals that are not strong enough to support
projections (e.g., some brasses, or copper) cannot be
projection welded satisfactorily.
(iii) Forming of projection on one of the
workpieces is an extra operation.
(iv) For proper welding, all projections must be of
the same height.
(v) Since there is no possibility of using post-weld
current pulses for heat-treatment (as is possible in spot
welding) weld assemblies in hardenable materials must
be heat-treated in a furnace.

pplications

tomobiles
ss production work- refrigerator, condenser, crossed wire welding etc.

Thank You