Cardiovascular System

Thea Jumamil
Raiza Luche
John Lumapas
Nicole Merced
Cesar Misador Jr.

Body system that is responsible for

transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones,

and other substances to and from the
tissue cells where exchanges are made
The primary organs of the cardiovascular
system are the heart and blood vessels
The system uses blood as the transporting
fluid for the nutrients and other substances
to be distributed

Anatomy of the Heart

Orientation of the heart

Apex
the more pointed inferior aspect of the heart
directed toward the left hip and rests on the

diaphragm
Approximately at the 5th intercostal space
Base
Broad posterosuperior aspecet of the heart
Points toward the right shoulder and lies

beneath the second rib

Coverings and Walls of the Heart

Pericardium
Double-walled sac that encloses the heart

Fibrous pericardium
Superficial layer of the pericardium
Anchors the heart to the surrounding organs

Serous pericardium
Deeper layer of pericardium
Its parietal layer lines the interior of the

fibrous pericardium
Its visceral layer forms the epicardium, which
is actually the first layer of the heart wall

Coverings and Walls of the Heart

Myocradium
2nd layer of the heart wall
The layer that actually contracts
Its cells exhibit both tight and gap junctions
Reinforced internally by dense, fibrous

connective tissue network called the skeleton of

the heart
Endocardium
Innermost layer of the heart wall
Thin, glistening sheet of endothelium lining the

heart chambers, and is continuous with the

linings of blood vessels entering and leaving the
heart

Chambers and Associated Great

Vessels
Atria
Two chambers in the superior aspect of the heart
Primarily receiving chambers
Blood flows into the atria under low pressure from the

veins and continues to fill the ventricles

Ventricles
Two chambers in the inferior aspect of the heart
Discharging chambers, or the actual pumps of the heart
Their contraction propels blood out of the heart and into

circulation
The atria and ventricles are divided longitudinally by

the interventricular or interatrial septum,

depending on which chamber it separates

Chambers and Associated Great

Vessels
Pulmonary circulation
Circulation of blood in which blood travels only

through the lungs and back to the heart to take

oxygen
Uses the right side of the heart (R. atrium, R.
ventricle)
Oxygen-blood enters the heart through the
superior and inferior vena cavae, then pumped
out through the pulmonary trunk, which splits
into right and left pulmonary arteries
Blood is carried through the lungs and gas
exchange occurs, then blood returns to the left side
of the heart through the four pulmonary veins

Chambers and Associated Great

Vessels
Systemic circulation
Circulation of blood in which blood travels

throughout the body to transport oxygen to the

tissues.
Uses the left side of the heart (L. atria, L. ventricle)
Blood returned to the left side of the heart (from the
lungs) is pumped out through the aorta, from which
systemic arteries branch to supply the body tissues
Oxygen-poor blood from the tissues circulates back
to the heart through the systemic veins and fill the
right atria through the superior and inferior vena
cavae

Heart Valves
Allows blood in the heart to flow in only one

direction through the heart chambers

Atrioventricular valves (AV valves)
Located between the atria and ventricles in each

side
The left AV valve, the bicuspid or mitral valve,
consists of two flaps, or cusps, of endocardium.
The right AV valve, the tricuspid valve, consists
of three flaps
Chordae tendineae
heart strings
Anchor the flaps to the walls of the ventricles

Heart Valves
Semilunar valves
Guards the bases of the two large arteries

leaving the ventricles

AKA pulmonary and aortic valves
Have three leaflets each that fit tightly
together when the valves are closed
Prevents blood in the arteries from reentering
the ventricles

Heart Valves
Incompetent valve forces the heart to

pump and repump the same blood because

the valve does not close properly and blood
backflows
In Valvular stenosis, the valves become
stiff, often because of repeated infection of
endocardium (endocarditis)
In each case, the hearts workload
increases, and ultimately the heart
weakens and may fail

Cardiac Circulation
Blood circulation that nourishes the myocardium
Blood is provided by the right and left coronary

arteries
Coronary arteries branch from the base of the
aorta and encircle the heart at the coronary
sulcus (atrioventricular groove), at the
junction of the atria and ventricles
Coronary arteries branches into the anterior
interventricular and circumflex arteries on
the left, and the posterior intervenricular and
marginal arteries on the right

Cardiac Circulation
The myocardium is drained by several

cardiac veins, which empty into an

enlarged vessel on the posterior heart
called the coronary sinus

Cardiac Circulation
Angina pectoris
Chest pain resulting from deprivation of

oxygen in myocardium
If angina is prolonged, oxygen-deprived heart
muscles die, forming an infarct, and can
result to myocardial infarction

Physiology of the Heart

Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heart: Setting the Basic

Rhythm

Unlike skeletal muscles which must be stimulated

by nerve impulses, cardiac muscles can contract

spontaneously and independently even if all
nervous connections are severed
But although the can beat independently, muscle
cells in different areas have different rhythm
Atrial cells beat 60 times/min while ventricular
cells beat 20-40 times/min
Therefore, without some unifying control system,
the heart would be an uncoordinated and
inefficient pump.

Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heart: Setting the

Basic Rhythm
Two systems act to regulate heart activity
Neural (ANS) controls
Intrinsic conduction system or nodal

system
Built into the heart tissue
Sets the basic rhythm of the heart
Composed of special tissue found nowhere else in

the body
Causes heart muscle depolarization in only one
direction from the atria to the ventricles
Enforces a contraction rate of approximately 75
beats/min on the heart

Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heart: Setting the

Basic Rhythm
Sinoatrial (SA) node
Located at the R. atrium
Starts each heartbeat and sets the pace for the whole

heart (pacemaker)
Atrioventricular (AV) node
Located in the junction of atria and ventricles

Atrioventricular (AV) bundle (bundle of His)

Located in the interventricular spetum

Bundle branches
Located in the interventricular spetum

Purkinje fibers
Spread within the muscle of the ventricular walls

Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heart: Setting

the Basic Rhythm
From the SA node, the impulse travels to

the AV node, and the atria contract. At the

AV node, the impulse is delayed briefly to
give the atria time to finish contracting.
Then it passes rapidly through the AV
bundle, then bundle branches, then the
Purkinje fibers, resulting in the contraction
of the ventricles that begins in the apex
and moves towards the atria

Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heart: Setting the

Basic Rhythm
Heart block
Damage to the AV node that can partially or

totally release the ventricles from the control

of the SA node
The ventricles begin to beat at a much
slower rate
Ischemia, or lack of adequate blood

supply to the heart muscle, can lead to

fibrillation, a rapid uncoordinated
shuddering of the heart muscle.

Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heart: Setting the

Basic Rhythm
Tachycardia
Rapid heart rate (over 100 beats/min)
May result to fibrillation

Bradycardia
Heart rate that is substantially slower than

normal (less than 60 beats/min)

Cardiac Cycle and Heart

Sounds
Systole
Heart contraction

Diastole
Heart relaxation

Cardiac cycle
The events of one complete heartbeat (about

0.8 sec)
3 periods
Mid-to-late diastole
Ventricular systole
Early diastole

Cardiac Cycle and Heart

Sounds
Mid-to-late diastole
Pressure in the heart is low
Blood is flowing into and through the atria and into the

ventricles from pulmonary and systemic circulations

Semilunar valves are closed; AV valves are open
The atria contracts and force blood remaining in its
chambers into the ventricles
Ventricular Systole
Ventricular contraction begins; intraventricular

pressure increases and the AV valves close; semilunar

valves are forced open
Atria are relaxed and are again filling with blood

Cardiac Cycle and Heart

Sounds
Early diastole
Ventricles relax; semilunar valves snap shut;

intraventricular pressure drops

AV valves open, allowing blood in the atria to refill
the ventricles
Heart sounds (lub-dup)
First heart sound (lub)
Caused by the closing of AV valves
Longer and louder than the second sound
Second heart sound (dup)
Caused by the closing of semilunar valves
Shorter and sharper than the first sound

Cardiac Cycle and Heart

Sounds
Heart murmurs
If blood flow encounter obstructions, its flow

becomes turbulent and generates sounds

Common in young children (and some elderly
people) with perfectly healthy hearts, probably
because their heart walls are relatively thin and
vibrate with rushing blood
To people with incompetent valves, a swishing
sound is heard after the valve supposedly closes, as
the blood flows back through the partially open
valve
Distinct sounds also can be heard when blood flows
turbulently through stenosed (narrowed) valves

Cardiac Output
Cardiac output (CO)
Amount of blood pumped out by each side of the

heart in 1 minute
Product of heart rate (HR) and stroke volume
(SV)
Stroke volume
Volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with

each heartbeat
Increases when force of ventricular contraction
increases
CO = HR (75 beats/min) x SV (70 mL/beat)

CO = 5250 mL/min

Cardiac Output
Regulation of stroke volume
The heart pumps out about 60% of the blood in its

ventricles, about 70 mL
Starlings law of the heart
The critical factor controlling the stroke volume is how much the

cardiac muscle cells are stretched just before they contract. The
more they are stretched, the stronger the contraction will be

The important factor stretching the heart muscle is the

venous return (amount of blood and distending the

ventricles)
Anything that increases the volume or speed of venous
return also increases stroke volume and force of
contraction

Cardiac Output
Factors modifying basic heart rate
Neural (ANS) controls
Hormones and ions
Physical factors

Cardiac Output
Neural (ANS) factors
In times of physical or emotional stress, the

sympathetic division of ANS more strongly

stimulate the SA and AV nodes and the
cardiac muscle itself, resulting in a faster
heartbeat
When demand declines, the heart adjusts,
and the parasympathetic division of ANS
slow and steady the heart, giving it more
time to rest during non-crisis times

Cardiac Output
Hormones and Ions
Epinephrine, which is released in response

to sympathetic nerve stimulation and mimics

the effect of the sympathetic nerves, and
thyroxine both increase the heart rate
Either lack or excess of needed ions such as
K+ and Na+ modifies heart activity. For
example, a deficit of K+ ions causes the
heart to beat feebly, and abnormal heart
rhythms appear

Cardiac Output
Physical factors
Age, exercise, gender, and body temperature

can influence heart rate

Heart rate is fastest in the fetus (140-160
beats/min)
Heart rate in females (72-80 beats/min) is faster
than in males (64-70 beats/min)
Increase in temperature increases heart rate and
decrease in temperature decreases heart rate
Exercise increases temperature because working
muscles generate heat, and therefore increase
heart rate

Cardiac Output
Congestive heart failure
Pumping efficiency of heart is depressed so

that circulation is inadequate to meet tissue

needs
Progressive condition that reflects weakening
of heart by coronary atherosclerosis
(clogging of coronary vessels with fatty
buildup), persistent high BP, or multiple
myocardial infarctions

Cardiac Output
Pulmonary congestion
Failure of the left side of the heart
Right side of the heart continues to propel blood to

the lungs, but the left side cannot eject blood into
systemic circulation
Blood vessels within the lungs become swollen, and
the pressure within them increases, and fluid leaks
into the lung tissue, causing pulmonary edema
Peripheral congestion
Failure of the right side of the heart
Blood backs up in the systemic circulation
Edema is most noticeable in the distal parts of the

body

Cardiac Output
Failure of one side of the heart puts greater

strain on the opposite slide, and eventually

the whole heart fails

BLOOD VESSELS

Blood Vessels
Blood circulates inside the blood vessels, which

form a closed transport system, so called the

VASCULAR SYSTEM.
ARTERIES- any of the muscular-walled tubes
forming part of the circulation system by which
blood is conveyed from the heart to all parts of
the body.
ARTERIOLES- a small branch of an artery
leading into capillaries.
CAPILLARY- anatomy of the fine branching
blood vessels that form a network between the
arterioles and venules.

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF
BLOOD VESSELS
TUNICA- anatomy a membranous sheath

enveloping or lining an organ.

Tunica Intima- which lines the lumen, or
interior, of the vessels, is a thin layer of
endothelium resting on a basement
membrane.
Tunica media- is the bulky middle coat.
Tunica externa- is the outer most tunic.

STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES IN
ARTERIES, VEINS, AND CAPILLARY
CAPILLARY BEDS- tiny capillaries tend to

form interweaving networks.

MICROCIRCULATION- the flow of blood from
an arteriole to a venule that is through a
capillary bed.
TWO TYPES OF VESSELS
VASCULAR SHUNT- a vessel that directly
connects the arteriole and venule at opposite
ends of the bed.
TRUE CAPILLARIES- the actual exchange
vessels

PRECAPILLARY SPHINCENTER- a cuff

of smooth muscle fibers, surrounds the

root of each true capillary and acts as a
valve to regulate the flow of blood into
the capillary.

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALACE
VARICOSE VEINS- are common in

people who stand for a long periods of

time and in obese individuals.
THROMBOPHLEBITIS- inflammation of
a vein that results when a clot forms in a
vessel with poor circulation.

GROSS ANATOMY OF
BLOOD VESSELS

Major Arteries of the

Systemic Circulation
Aorta
Ascending Aorta
Aortic Arch
Thoracic Aorta
Abdominal Aorta

Arterial Branches of
the Ascending Aorta
Right and Left Coronary

Arteries

Arterial Branches of the

Aortic Arch
I.

Brachciocephalic Trunk
1. Right Common Carotid Artery
2. Right Subclavian Artery

II. Left Common Carotid Artery

1. Internal Carotid Artery

2. External Carotid Artery

III. Left Subclavian Artery

1. Vertebral Artery
*Axillary Artery
*Brachial Artery
*Radial and Ulnar Arteries

Arterial Branches of the

Abdominal Aorta
I.

Celiac Trunk
1. Left Gastric Artery
2. Splenic Artery (Spleen)
3. Common Hepatic Artery (Liver)

II. Superior Mesenteric Artery

(Unpaired; most of small intestine and

first half of large intestine, or colon)

III. Renal Arteries (Kidney)

IV. Gonadal Arteries

(Ovarian Arteries or Testicular

Arteries)
V. Lumbar Arteries

(Several pairs; heavy muscles of the

abdomen and trunk walls

VI. Inferior Mesenteric Artery

(Small, unpaired; second half

of large intestine)

VII. Common Iliac Arteries

1. Internal Iliac Artery (Pelvic

organs)
2. External Iliac Artery
*Femoral Artery
*Popliteal Artery
*Anterior Tibial Artery
*Dorsalis Pedis Artery
*Arcuate Artery (foot)
*Posterior Tibial Artery

MAJOR VEINS OF THE

SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
Superior Vena Cava
Inferior Vena Cava

Veins Draining into the

Superior Vena Cava
I.

Radial and Ulnar Veins

*Brachial Vein
*Axillary Vein

II. Cephalic Vein

(Superficial; lateral aspect)

*Axillary Vein

III. Basilic Vein

(Superficial; median aspect)

*Brachial Vein
Median Cubital Vein (Connects
Basilic and Cephalic Veins
IV. Subclavian Vein

+ Axillary Vein
+ External Jugular Vein

V. Vertebral Vein

(Posterior part of the head)

VI. Internal Jugular Vein

(Dural sinuses of the brain)

VII. Brachiocephalic Vein

Vena Cava
+ Subclavian Vein
+ Vertebral Vein
+ Internal Jugular Vein

Superior

Veins Draining into the

Inferior Vena Cava
I.

Anterior and Posterior Tibial Veins,

Fibular Veins
(Leg)

II. Great Saphenous Vein (longest vein)

+ Dorsal Venous Vein

* Femoral Vein

III.

Common Iliac Vein

* External Iliac Vein
* Internal Iliac Vein (Pelvis)

IV. Right Gonadal Vein (R. Ovary or R.

Testicle)
Left Gonadal Vein
*Left Renal Vein
V. Renal Veins (Kidneys)

VI. Hepatic Portal Vein

(Digestive tract organs
Systemic Circulation
VII. Hepatic Veins
(Liver)

Liver

SPECIAL CIRCULATIONS

Arterial Supply of the

Brain and the Circle of
Willis
A continuous blood supply to the

brain is important because a lack of

blood for even a few minutes causes
the delicate brain cells to die.
Internal Carotid Arteries & Vertebral

Arteries

Internal Carotid Arteries

They branch of from the Common

Carotid Arteries
Neck

Skull via the Temporal Bone

Once inside the cranium, each splits

into Anterior and Middle Cerebral

Arteries, which supplies the Cerebrum

Vertebral Arteries
In the skull, the Vertebral Arteries join

into Basilar Artery.

The Basilar Artery serves the brain

stem and cerebellum.

At the base of the cerebrum, the Basilar

Artery divides to form Posterior Cerebral

Arteries (Posterior part of the cerebrum)

Cerebral Arterial Circle

or Circle of Willis
Small communicating arterial branches

unite the anterior and posterior blood

supplies of the brain.
This results a complete circle of connected

blood vessels called Cerebral Arterial Circle

or Circle of Willis.
This circle protects the brain by providing

more than one route for blood to reach

brain tissue in case a clot or impaired

Fetal Circulation
The Placenta is where the

nutrient, excretory, and gas

exchanges occur because a
fetus lungs and digestive
system are not yet functioning.

Umbilical Cord
The Umbilical Cord contains three

blood vessels: one large umbilical

vein and two smaller umbilical
arteries
The Umbilical Vein carries blood rich

in nutrients and oxygen to the fetus

The Umbilical Arteries carry Carbon

Dioxide and debris-laden blood from

Fetal Circulation
When blood flows towards the

heart of the fetus, it bypasses the

immature liver through the Ductus
Venosus and enters the Inferior
Vena Cava, which carries the blood
to the right atrium of the heart

Because the fetal lungs are

nonfunctional and collapsed, two

shunts see to it that they are almost
entirely bypassed.
Some of the blood entering the right

atrium is shunted directly to the left

atrium through the Foramen Ovale.
Blood that manage to enter is

pumped out the Pulmonary Trunk

where it meets the Ductus Arteriosus

The Aorta carries blood to the

tissues of the fetal body and

ultimately back to the Placenta
through the Umbilical Arteries.
Shortly after birth:
Foramen Ovale: Fossa Ovalis
Ductus Arteriosus: Ligamentum

Arteriosum

HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION

The veins of this circulation drains

the digestive organs, spleen, and

pancreas and deliver this to the
liver through the Hepatic Portal
Digestive
Vein
Organs
Spleen
Pancreas

Hepatic
Portal Vein

Liver

The liver is a key body organ

involved in maintaining the proper

glucose, fat, and protein
concentrations in the blood that is
why the Hepatic Portal System has to
take a detour to ensure that the liver
processes the substances before they
enter the systemic circulation
As blood flows slowly through the

liver, some of the nutrients are

removed to be stored for later release
in the blood. The Hepatic Vein drains

Major Vessels in Hepatic

Portal Circulation
Inferior Mesenteric Vein
Splenic Vein
Superior Mesenteric Vein
Left Gastric Vein

Inferior Mesenteric Vein

(Terminal part of the large

intestine)
*Splenic Vein
Splenic Vein

(Spleen, pancreas, left side of the

stomach)
Superior Mesenteric Vein

Superior Mesenteric Vein

+ Splenic Vein
= HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN
Left Gastric Vein

(Right side of the stomach)

*Hepatic Portal Vein

Physiology of Circulation

Vital signs
A good indication of the efficiency of a

persons circulatory system can be

obtained by taking arterial pulse and blood
pressure measurements.

Arterial Pulse
The alternating expansion and recoil of an

artery that occurs with each beat of the left

ventricle creates a pressure wave a pulse
that travels through the entire arterial
system.
Normally, pulse rate = heart rate
The pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per minute
in a normal resting person.
You can feel a pulse in an artery lying close to
the body surface by compressing the artery
against firm tissue; this provides an easy way
of counting heart rate.
Because these same points are compressed
to stop blood flow into distal tissues during
hemorrhage, they are so called pressure
points.

Blood Pressure
Is the pressure the blood exerts

against the inner walls of the blood

vessels, and it is the force that
keeps blood circulating continuously
even between heartbeats.

Blood Pressure Gradient

When the ventricles contract, they force blood into

large, thick-walled elastic arteries close to the heart

that expand as the blood is pushed into them.
The pressure is highest in the large arteries and
continues to drop throughout the systemic and
pulmonary pathways, reaching either zero or
negative pressure at the venae cavae.
If venous return depended entirely on a high blood
pressure throughout the system, blood would
probably never be able to complete it circuit back
to the heart.
If a vein is cut, the blood flows evenly from the
wound; a lacerated artery produces rapid spurts of
blood.
Continuous blood flow absolutely depends on the
stretchiness of the larger arteries and their ability
to recoil and keep exerting pressure on the blood as
it flows off into the circulation.

Measuring Blood
Pressure
Systolic pressure the pressure in the

arteries at the peak of ventricular contraction

Diastolic pressure the pressure when the
ventricles are relaxing
Blood pressures are reported in millimeters of
mercury (mm Hg), with the systolic pressure
written first 120/80 translates to a systolic
pressure of 120 mm Hg and a diastolic
pressure of 80 mm Hg.
Most often, systemic arterial blood pressure
is measured indirectly by the auscultatory
method. This procedure, as used to measure
blood pressure in the brachial artery of the
arm.

Effects of Various Factors on

Blood Pressure
Arterial blood pressure (BP) is directly

related to cardiac output (CO; the amount

of blood pumped out of the left ventricle
per minute) and peripheral resistance (PR).
BP = CO X PR
Peripheral resistance is the amount of
friction the blood encounters as it flows
through the blood vessels
Increased blood volume or increased blood
viscosity (thickness) also raises peripheral
resistance.
Many factors can alter blood pressure
age, weight, time of day, exercise, body
position, emotional state, and various
drugs.

1. Neural factors: the autonomic nervous

system. The major action of the sympathetic

nerves on the vascular system is to cause
vasoconstriction or narrowing of the blood
vessels, which increases blood pressure. When
blood volume suddenly decreases, as in
hemorrhage, blood pressure drops, and the
heart begins to beat more rapidly as it tries to
compensate. The sympathetic nervous
system causes vasoconstriction to increase
the blood pressure so that venous return
increases and circulation can continue.
2. Renal factors: the kidneys. As blood pressure
(and/or volume) increases beyond normal, the
kidneys allow more water to leave the body in
the urine. Because the source of this water is
the bloodstream, blood volume decreases,
which in turn decreases blood pressure.
Angiotensin stimulates the adrenal cortex to
release aldosterone, a hormone that enhances
sodium ion reabsorption by the kidneys.

3. Temperature. In general, cold has

vasoconstricting effect and heat has a
vasodilating effect.
4. Chemicals. Epinephrine increases
both heart rate and blood pressure.
Nicotine increases blood pressure by
causing vasoconstriction. Botch alcohol
and histamine cause vasodilation and
decrease blood pressure.
5. Diet. It is generally believed that a
diet low in salt, saturated fats, and
cholesterol helps to prevent
hypertension, or high blood pressure.

Variations in Blood
Pressure
In normal adults at rest, systolic

blood pressure varies between 110

and 140 mm Hg, and diastolic
pressure between 70 and 80 mm
Hg.
Blood pressure varies with age,
weight, race, mood, physical
activity, and posture.
Hypotension, or low blood
pressure, is generally considered to
be a systolic blood pressure below
100 mm Hg.

BLOOD PRESSURE CHART BY

AGE
AGE

MIN

NORMAL

MAX

1-12
months

75/50

90/60

110/75

1-5 years

80/55

95/65

110/79

6-13 years

90/60

105/70

115/80

14-19 years

105/73

117/77

120/81

20-24 years

108/75

120/79

132/83

25-29 years

109/76

121/80

133/84

30-34 years

110/77

122/81

134/85

35-39 years

111/78

123/82

135/86

40-44 years

112/79

125/83

137/87

45-49 years

115/80

127/84

139/88

50-54 years

116/81

129/85

142/89

55-59 years

118/82

131/86

144/90

60-64 years

121/83

134/87

147/91

Elderly people may experience temporary low

blood pressure and dizziness when they rise

suddenly from a reclining or sitting position a
condition called orthostatic hypotension.
Acute hypotension is one of the most
important warnings of circulatory shock, a
condition in which the blood vessels are
inadequately filled and blood cannot circulate
normally. The most common cause is blood
loss.
Persistent hypertension, or high blood
pressure, is pathological and is defined as a
condition of sustained elevated arterial
pressure of 140/90 or higher.
Although hypertension and atherosclerosis are
often linked, it is difficult to blame
hypertension on any distinct anatomical
pathology. In fact, about 90 percent of
hypertensive people have primary, or
essential, hypertenision, which cannot be
attributed to any specific organ cause.

Capillary Exchange of Gases

and Nutrients
Capillaries form an intricate

network among the bodys cells and

no substance has to diffuse very far
to enter or leave the cell
The substances to be exchanged
diffuse through an intervening
space filled with interstitial fluid
(tissue fluid)
Substances entering or leaving the
blood may take one of four routes
across the plasma membranes of
the single layer of endothelial cells
forming the capillary wall

Direct diffusion through membrane.

Substances can diffuse directly through plasma

membranes if they are lipid soluble
Diffusion through intercellular clefts. Limited
passage of fluid and small solutes is allowed by
intercellular clefts (gaps or areas of plasma
membrane not joined by tight junctions)
Diffusion through pores. Very free passage of
small salutes and fluids is allowed by fenestrated
capillaries, which are found where absorption is
priority, and where filtration occurs. A fenestra is
and opening usually covered by a delicate
membrane which is more permeable than other
regions of the plasma membrane
Transport via vesicles. Lipid-insoluble
substances may enter or leave the blood and
pass through the plasma membrane of
endothelial cells within vesicles, that is, by
endocytosis or exocytosis

Fluid Movement at Capillary

Beds

Besides the exchanges of nutrients in the

capillaries, there are other active forces
operating at the capillary beds
Blood pressure tends to force fluid (and
solutes) out of the capillaries, and osmotic
pressure tends to draw fluid into them because
blood has higher solute concentration (due to its
plasma proteins) than does insterstitial fluid
Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure
at the arterial end , and lower than osmotic
pressure at the venous end of the capillary bed
Fluid moves out of the capillaries at the
beginning of the bed and reclaimed at the
opposite (venule) end
Not all the fluid is reclaimed at the venule end,
and the lymphatic system is responsible of
returning the lost fluid back to the blood

Developmental Aspects of
the Cardiovascular System.

OBJECTIVES
Briefly describe the development of the

cardiovascular system
Name the fetal vascular modifications, or
fetal shunts, and describe their function
before birth
Describe changes in the cardiovascular
system with aging and list several factors
that help maintain cardiovascular health

1. tube
2. loop
3. Chamber formation
4.completion of septation
with deployment of
coronary circulation
"Septated"meansthat the cyst is
divided into segments.

-The heart begins as a simple tube in the embryo

-By the 4th week of pregnancy, the heart begins to beat and busily
pumping blood
-During the next three weeks, (7th week) the heart continues to change
and mature, finally becoming a four-chambered structure capable of
acting as a double-pump all without missing a beat with special vascular
shunts to bypass the nonfunctioning, collapsed lungs and liver until
birth. (occurs during fetal life)
-The heart becomes 4-chambered by the end of seven weeks.
(After the seventh week of development, few changes other than growth
occur in the fetal circulation until birth.)
-Shortly after birth, the bypass structures become blocked, and the
special umbilical vessels stop functioning.

Since fetal lungs are nonfunctional, two shunts bypass the blood so that
some of the blood entering the right atrium is shunted directly into the
left atrium through the foramen ovale, a flap-like opening in the
interatrial septum and the blood that does manage to enter the right
ventricle is pumped out the pulmonary trunk where it meets a second
shunt, the ductus arteriosus, which is a short vessel that connects the
aorta and the pulmonary trunk. At birth, the foramen ovale closes and
the ductus arteriosus collapses and is converted to fibrous ligamentum
arteriosum and as blood stops flowing through the umbilical vessels,
they become obliterated, and the circulatory patter becomes that of an
adult

FETAL SHUNTS
FORAMEN OVALE

- oval door
-connects the 2 atria and allows blood
entering the right heart to bypass the
pulmonary circuit and the non functional
fetal lung.
FUNCTION:

FETAL SHUNTS
Ductus Arteriosus

- exist between the pulmonary trunk and

the aorta

FUNCTION :

Describe changes in the

cardiovascular system
with aging

EFFECT OF CHANGES

Normally, the heart continues to pump

enough blood to supply all parts of the body.
However, an older heart may not be able to
pump blood as well when you make it work
harder.
Certain medicines
Emotional stress
Physical exertion
Illness
Infections
Injuries

list several
factors that help
maintain
cardiovascular
health

EAT THE RIGHT FOOD

KNOW WHAT FAT IS GOOD TO TAKE IN

EXERCISE DAILY

DO AEROBICS

S
SUGAR
T
SALT
A
F

CARBS