Geological Engineering

Civil & Geological Engineering

University of Saskatchewan

GeoE 498

Introduction to Mining and Mineral Processing Engineering

Lecture Notes
Fall
2010

University of Saskatchewan
Geological Engineering
GEOE 498.3
Introduction to Mineral Engineering
Lecture 8 Mineral Processing 1

Lorne Schwartz
Chief Metallurgist
Technical Services

Cameco Corporation

 Course Structure
Part A (7 Lectures) Mine Engineering
Part B (6 Lectures) Metallurgical
Engineering
Grading
Assignments 20%
Mid term 35%
Final 45%

 These course notes are a compilation of

work conducted by many people.
Notes have been taken from the following
Edumine courses:
The Mill Operating Resource 1&2
Process Mineralogy for Metals
Extractive Metallurgy 1 & 2
Hydrometallurgy 1,2,3,4
Economic Evaluation and Optimization of
Mineral Projects

Mineral Processing Overview

Mineral Processing Terminology,
Economics
Comminution and Classification
Physical processing methods
Chemical processing methods
Waste products
treatment and
disposal
Process plant
flow sheets:
uranium and potash

Importance of Mineral Processing

No substance has been as important as metal in
the story of man's control of his environment.
Advances in agriculture, warfare, transport, even
cookery are impossible without metal. So is the
entire Industrial Revolution, from steam to
electricity.
Read more:
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHis
tories.asp?historyid
=ab16#ixzz13XSEyvNz

Importance of Mineral Processing

Bronze Age- Bronze is in use in
Sumer, at Ur, in around 2800
BC

Iron Age - from the 11th century

BC onwards, steel replaces bronze
weapons. It becomes essential,
from now on, to have a good steel
blade rather than a soft and
indifferent one.

Lecture 8
Mineral Processing Overview:
Geology-Mining-Processing Relationship
Mineral Processing Terms
Definitions

Mineral Economics review

Project Stages

Lecture 9
Comminution & classification circuits
Comminution Methods
Principles
Crushing
Grinding

Classification Methods
Principles
Hydrocyclone
Screening

Assignment

Lecture # 10
Physical Processing Methods
Gravity
Magnetic
Electrostatic
Radiometric
Froth Flotation
Solid/liquid separation
Assignment

Lecture 11
Chemical Processing
Basic Circuits
Leaching
Solvent Extraction
Precipitation
Drying
Downstream Purified Product
Electrowinning
Smelting
Assignment

Lecture #12
Waste Stream Management:
Tailings Disposal
Surface
Underground
Effluent Treatment
Chemical Precipitation
Membrane Technology
Assignment

Lecture # 13
Saskatchewan Mill
Process Flowsheets
Uranium
Potash

Assignment

Geology Mining Processing

All 3 aspects must be favorable to make a deposit
economically viable
Geology: Find it. Is it big enough to be economic?
Mining: Dig it. Is it economically recoverable from the
ground?
Processing: Extract it. Is it economically separable
from the host rock?

Prevalence of mineral processing

In Saskatchewan as of 2009 there were:
3 uranium mills
8 potash mine/mills
1 gold mine/mill
coal mines (thermal)
Salt mine
An identified diamond deposit (Fort a la
Corne)
An identified rare earth element deposit
(Hoidas Lake)

Prevalence of mineral processing

Mining is all around us!
In Alberta there are:
Oil sands process plants (uses mining and mineral
processing techniques)
Coal plants
Industrial minerals (limestone)
Nickel/cobalt metallurgical complex
In Manitoba there are:
Many copper/zinc mines and mills, feeding the Flin
Flon metallurgical complex
Nickel mines nearby Thompson smelter
In the Northwest Territories there are:
3 operating diamond mines
Gold mines

Introduction to Mineral Processing

Scope of mineral

processing

Definitions
Economics
Project Stages

Mining Terminology - Review

Miners send their products to their customer the mill.

Ore : Rock that contains a mineral or minerals in sufficient quantities

as to make commercial extraction (mining milling) profitable.

Grade : A measure of concentration of a mineral/metal contained in

rock (or ore). Gold and other precious metals g/t or oz/t, base metals
- %, uranium kg/tonne, rare earth elements ppm

Cut off Grade : The minimum concentration or grade of mineral

that is required for rock to be considered ore.

Waste : Not Ore.

Ore Body: A mineralized deposit (resource) whose characteristics
have been examined and found to be commercially viable. The
extents of the ore body are determined by the cut-off grade.

Host Rock: The rock containing an ore deposit. Typically

composed of 2 or more minerals.

Gangue: Minerals in the ore body that are not of economic interest

Mineral Processing

Is the recovery of valuable minerals from ore

Takes place in a mill, aka concentrator - because it
concentrates valuable minerals by removing unwanted
material.
The two main products are the concentrate streams
(valuable minerals) and the tailings streams (rejects).

Disciplines related to mineral processing

Fields of Metallurgical Engineering

Field

Exampleoftopics

Beneficiationor
MineralDressing

Theoryandpracticeof
liberationofminerals
fromoresandtheir
separationbyphysical
methodsatambient
conditions

Extractivemetallurgy

Chemicalmethods
sometimesathigh
Leaching,precipitation,
temperatureandpressure
electrolysis,oxidation,
fortreatingoresto
reduction,etc.
recovertheirmetal
valuesinapureform

Physicalmetallurgy

Studyofphysical
propertiesofmetalsand
alloys,preparationof
alloys

Crystalstructure,effect
ofimpurities,
metallography,heat
treatment,etc.

Engineeringmetallurgy

Processingofmetalsin
themoltenstate

Casting,welding,etc.

Mechanicalmetallurgy

Processingofmetalsin
thesolidstate

Forging,rolling,
extrusion,piercing

Powdermetallurgy

Processingofmetal
powdersintofinished
products

Preparationofmetalsin
powderform,hot
pressing,etc.

MineralProcessing

MetalProcessing

Description

Crushingandgrinding,
magneticandelectrical
methods,flotation,etc.

Engineering Terminology in Mineral Processing

Circuit: The path that the ore that is being
processed takes as it proceeds from one
processing point to another.
Flow Sheet - Drawing that indicates the path
that the mineral takes within a process.
Several circuits are often contained within a
flow sheet
Recovery Rate The percentage of valuable
metal/mineral, by mass, in the concentrate
from the feed

Mineral Processing

The goals of mineral processing are to:

separate economic mineral particles from
waste or gangue
subject minerals to processes in order to
concentrate them or to extract metals from
them

 Many forms of mineral processing

Depends on feed material and desired product

Mineral Processing Terminology

Concentration: Another word for grade
Heads: A term that is used to denote the mineral
found in the FEED to a circuit.
Head Grade: aka feed concentration
Concentrate: a purified mineral. May require further
downstream processing to convert for end uses.
Examples: Copper and nickel sulfides
Tailings - Material rejected from a mill after the
recoverable valuable minerals have been extracted.
Industrial mineral: is used for end purpose without
chemical alteration. Examples: gravel, coal
Mineralogy: Description of mineral contents

What is mineral processing?

Mineral:
a)A solid naturally-occurring compound having
a definite chemical composition.
b) Inorganic substance that are extracted from
the earth for use by man.
c) A naturally occurring inorganic element or
compound having an orderly internal structure
and characteristic chemical composition,
crystal form, and physical properties.

Mineral classification
Nonmetallic processing has some commonalities
with metal processing, but lots of differences

Examples of minerals

Examples of minerals

 Mineralogy determines recoverability

Impact of mineralogy
We mine rocks but
we concentrate
minerals.
Gangue minerals
also important
Understanding
mineralogy allows
design of processes
Important for
feasibility studies

What is mineral processing?

Processing
Extract values, reject waste
Conversion of mined ore into usable product
More expensive/challenging with lower
grade ores
Numerous processing methods

Mineral Processing Methods =

beneficiation + extractive metallurgy

Beneficiation aka Mineral Dressing

Overlap of physical and chemical methods, depending on product
Where extractive metallurgy leaves off, metal processing begins

Mineral Processing Terminology

Beneficiation: enrichment of ores and separation of unwanted gangue
minerals
subsequent metals extraction more efficient.
Can be divided into two distinct steps:
Liberation: the rock is broken down by mechanical means, mineral
components become independent of each other, detached
Separation: valuable minerals are separated by means of physical
and physico-chemical methods making use of differences in specific
gravity, magnetic properties, etc.
Extractive metallurgy:
Chemical reactions of the processes
equipment where reactions take place
Flowsheets combinations of processes

Typical Beneficiation Steps

Beneficiation Terminology
Comminution: Reduction of particle size
Starts at mine with blasting

Two basic types of equipment used:

Crushing breakage by compression
Grinding breakage by abrasion and impact

Comminution Equipment

Shaft

Comminution Equipment

Shaft

Beneficiation Terminology
Classification : Separation based mainly on particle
size
Behavior affected by size, shape, and density of the
particles
Two common types of classifiers:
Screens dry method, coarser particles
Hydrocyclones wet method, finer particles

Classification Equipment

Beneficiation Terminology
Separation Techniques take advantage of the
differences in characteristics between minerals:
Flotation: Attachment of minerals to air bubbles hydrophibicity

Magnetic Separation: Apply magnetic field

Gravity Separation: differences in specific gravity

of materials

Electrostatic Separation: Apply electrostatic

polarity

Particle size distribution has large influence on results

Separation Equipment
Flotation cell

Separation Equipment
Magnetic
separator

Separation Equipment
Gravity separation - jig

Separation Equipment
Electrostatic
separator

Beneficiation Terminology
Dewatering: To remove water from a substance.
Also refers to the circuit where this takes place.
Dewatering Techniques:
Thickener: Allow gravity settling
Filter: Apply air pressure to draw water out
Centrifuge: Apply centrifugal force
Dryer: Apply heat to evaporate
Slurry Density: The amount of solids in a slurry,
expressed as a percentage by weight.

Dewatering Equipment
Thickener

Dewatering Equipment
Disc filter

Dewatering Equipment
Rotary kiln dryer

Beneficiation Terminology

Waste Disposal - "Mining is waste management ..."

The majority of tonnage mined must be disposed of as tailings
Water used must be treated and released

Tailings Dam: Built from ground waste rock discharged after

processing from the mill

Acid Mine Drainage: produced by exposing sulfide minerals to air

and water, resulting in oxidation that generates acid.

Waste Rock: Unprocessed non-mineralized / low grade mined

material

Water Balance: Accounting of water inputs and outputs from a

mine/mill site.

Water Treatment: The removal of harmful contaminants from water

Waste Disposal
Tailings Dam

Waste Disposal
Waste Rock Pile

Waste Disposal
Acid Mine Drainage

Waste Disposal
Water Balance

Mineral Processing Methods =

beneficiation + extractive metallurgy

Beneficiation aka Mineral Dressing

Overlap of physical and chemical methods, depending on product
Where extractive metallurgy leaves off, metal processing begins

Extractive Metallurgy Terminology

Hydrometallurgy
Leaching - the process of extracting a soluble
constituent from a solid by means of a (water based)
solvent
Water changes solubility, by making it acidic or
basic, oxidizing or reducing
Solvent Extraction transfer between immiscible
fluids
Ion Exchange solid resins that adsorb/desorb
dissolved chemical species
Precipitation convert dissolved into solid
Crystallization via evaporation
Ionic precipitation - addition of a reagent to a
solution creates a metal compound whose
solubility is so low that precipitation takes
place immediately

Hydrometallurgy Equipment
Tank leach circuit

Hydrometallurgy Equipment
Solvent extraction mixer-settlers

Hydrometallurgy Equipment
Ion Exchange

Hydrometallurgy Equipment
Vacuum
crystallizer

Extractive Metallurgy Terminology

Pyrometallurgy use of heat to induce a
chemical transformation
Roasting convert to oxide form.

Example: 2 CuS2 + 5 O2 2 CuO + 4

SO2

Smelting - uses reducing substances

that will combine with those oxidized

elements to free the metal. Example:
2 Fe2O3 + 3 C 4 Fe + 3 CO2

Pyrometallurgy Equipment
Smelter

Extractive Metallurgy Terminology

Electrometallurgy use of electrical
energy to induce a chemical
transformation
Electrowinning to precipitate a metal

from solution using electric potential

Electrorefining to purify a metal by
dissolving it, then re-precipitating it

Electrometallurgy Equipment
Alternating anodes and cathodes in a
tankhouse for electrowinning

Flowsheet examples
Aluminum: from bauxite
Copper: from chalcopyrite
Iron: from hematite
Gold Placer, sulphide and oxide
Oil Sands Fort McMurray

Aluminum

Copper

Iron

Gold

Oil Sands

Mineral Processing Recovery

Recovery : Potential for loss every step of the way, in each
circuit!
Tonnage vs. Recovery: A processing circuit pushed beyond
its capacity will induce recovery loss
Feed Grade vs. Recovery : A higher feed grade tends to have
higher processing recovery

Concentrate Grade vs. Recovery: A higher concentrate grade

tends to result in lower processing recovery (= rejection of lower

quality minerals to tailings)

Concentrate Grade vs. Price: A higher quality concentrate will

fetch a higher price (have lower impurity penalties)

Revenue = Production (tonnes) x grade x recovery x price

Mining Economics
Typical product grade vs. recovery curve
for a Cu sulphide flotation mill

Mining Economics
Relation between cost and particle size

Mineral Economics - Review

Discounted Cash Flow (DCF)
NPV (net present value) is a means of comparing a
dollar today to the value of the same dollar in the
future. For mining projects, we apply NPV to
determine if a project is worth more than it costs.
Free Cash Flow (FCF) is the operating cash flow minus
capital includes Taxes, Dividends, Royalties,
Depreciation and Amortization. I.e. the amount of
money left after the bills are paid
Discount Rate is rate that future cash flows are
discounted to determine present value. This is
different than interest.
IRR (internal rate of return) is the discount rate that
results in an NPV of 0.

Mineral Economics - Review

Net Present Value is common way to evaluate a project
Value = Free Cash Flow
Rate = Discount Rate
n=Total number of periods
i=Period

Payback period - the time required for the

operating revenue to pay back all the costs,
including the initial capital investment used to
construct the project.

Mineral Economics
Typical mining project annual cash flow pattern
R = revenue, C = costs, T = taxes, A = annual
loan payment (principal + interest), F = cash
flow and K= capital costs.

Mining Project Economics

What happens when project parameters are changed?
Must start with a reasonable base case scenario (technically
feasible) before economic optimization (fine tuning)
Strong inter-relationships between:
Tonnage
Grade
Capital costs
Operating costs
Has effects on:
Mine life
Cutoff grade

Capital and Operating Cost Estimation vs. Tonnage

Work by OHara (1980), OHara and Suboleski (1992) and
USBM (1987) suggest that the curves for capital and
operating costs can be reasonably approximated by
exponential equations, with the general form:

Cost = K tx

Where:
K = a constant specific to the particular cost
t = production rate in tonnes per day
x = an exponent
Capital costs typical range: 0.5 to 0.7
0.6 is a reasonable first estimate

Operating costs in $/t typical range -.3 to -.1

-0.2 is a reasonable first estimate
WARNING: These equations should not be used for
detailed estimating, although they can give guidance for
order of magnitude estimating.

Capital and Operating Costs vs. Tonnage

If a cost is known accurately, this relationship can be used to factor the cost up or
down for differing production rates, within reasonable limits:
Cost at t1 = C1 = K t1x
Cost at t2 = C2 = K t2x
Then:
C1 / C2 = (K t1x) / (K t2x)
= t1x / t2x (because K is common it can be eliminated)
= (t1 / t2)x
Simplified:

C1 / C2 = (t1 / t2)x

Then:
C2 = C1 (t2 / t1)x
For a capital cost or annual operating cost, if C1 and t1 are known, and x can be
estimated from experience then C2 can be estimated for a given t2.
Example:
For capital cost at 20,000 t/d is $30 million, then at 25,000 t/d can be estimated at:
C2 = $30000000 (25000 / 20000)0.6
= $30000000 (1.1433)
= $34,298,000
For operating cost of $10.00/tonne, and an exponent of -.2 the unit cost at the
higher tonnage will be:
C2 = $10.00 (25000 / 20000)-0.2
= $10.00 (0.9564) = $9.56

Capex and Opex vs. Production Rate

NPV Curve

An NPV curve is theoretical, always check that

the inputs are realistic!

Mineral Economics Operating Costs

Overall operating costs are broken down into 3 basic areas
for economic analysis:
Mining determine mine plan input costs, production
rate and fully diluted (Run-of-Mine = ROM) grade
Milling determine process flowsheet input costs,
recovery rate, product quality
General and Administrative (G & A) determine
overhead costs :
Administration (HR, payroll)
Management (site + head office)
Safety & Health
Environment
Quality Management
G&A tends to be fixed REGARDLESS of
production rate!

Milling Operating Costs

Typicalrelativecostofbeneficiatinganore
%

Operation
Crushing

520

Grinding

2575

Flotation

2545

Dewateringand
drying

1020

Otheroperations

510

Project Stages
Idea stage
Conceptual stage
Pre-feasibility stage
Market Studies
Feasibility studies
Financial analysis
Preliminary design
Final design and construction
Commissioning and start up
Closing reports

Typical Project Stages

Idea Stage : identify the need for a project to be started or

conceptualized
philosophic - decide whether this is the type of project that
they would like to pursue
Discussions of cost and schedule at the idea stage are
normally limited to a broad definition
Informal - sometimes mentioned to get a reaction
Ideas can begin with anyone in the organization

Conceptual Study: establish the shape of the project, and get a

better feel for its scope and size
Costs can be put to a concept. However, the accuracy of
investment costs may be wildly out, probably +/-50%.
Rough estimate based on experience and judgment
Estimate's usefulness is in establishing an idea of the costs
commensurate with the aims of the project

Resource and Reserve Categorization

Mineral Reserve: This is where things start to get real

Typical Project Stages

Pre-feasibility Study : comprehensive study of viability of a mineral

project
mining method has been established
effective method of mineral processing has been determined
financial analysis based on reasonable assumptions of
technical, engineering, legal, operating, economic, social, and
environmental factors
determine if all or part of the mineral resource may be
classified as a mineral reserve

Feasibility Study: comprehensive study of a mineral deposit

all geological, engineering, legal, operating, economic, social,
environmental and other relevant factors are considered in
sufficient detail
could reasonably serve as the basis for a final decision by a
financial institution to finance the development of the deposit
for mineral production.

Typical Project Stages

Detailed design and construction: Engineering design and

construction are inseparable, even though two distinct groups
normally perform the work.
Preliminary design - establish a definite time frame for
freezing the process and plant designs so that cost and
schedule upsets are minimized effective method of mineral
processing has been determined
definitive estimate to an accuracy of 10 to 15% to control the
job requires about 20 percent of the total engineering must
be done, as measured by completion of drawings.
be leery of both steam-rolling a design freeze prematurely, vs.
allowing people to continuously change their minds

Commissioning: checkout period prior to starting the plant

Sometimes the entire plant is run for a period of time without
material
Startup usually begins on a reduced output basis, gradually
increasing until planned output capacity is reached

Typical Project Stages

Project emotional stages:

Euphoria
Wandering off track
Catch up and control
The Boggs
Project Manager panic
Frantic catch up and control
Loose ends
Sign off