CHAPTER 3

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

Introduction
Working Cycle & p-v Diagram
Indicated Power and Work
Conditions for Minimum Work
Mechanical Efficiency
Isothermal Efficiency
Clearance Volume
Volumetric Efficiency
Multistage Compressor

4.1

INTRODUCTION
Compressors uses mechanical work to take an amount of fluid
and deliver it at a required pressure
An efficient compressor increases pressure with minimum work
The amount of fluid is limited by the volume of the compressor
cylinder which is fixed
The reciprocating compressor operates in a cyclic manner
The properties of the working fluid at inlet and outlet are average
values

Basic Components of a Reciprocating

Compressor

A compressor consist of:

crank case encloses the
compression volume
crank shaft rotates the crank
piston moves through the cylinder
during each cycle
crank and connecting rod connects
the crank with the piston
spring loaded induction and delivery
valves
cylinder where piston travels
The crank shaft is usually driven by an
electric motor

Outlet

Inlet

Delivery
valve

Induction
valve

Piston
Connecting
rod
Crank

Crank
case

Schematic Layout

1. Air intake,
2. Compressor pump,
3.Outlet,
4. Drive belt,
5. Motor,
6. Control switch,
7. Relief valve,

8. Pressure gauge,
9. Manifold,
10. Regulator,
11. Supply line,
12. Air tank,
13. Water drain,

4.2

WORKING CYCLE & THE p-V DIAGRAM

(d a): Induction (intake)

Induction valve opens
Air is induced into the cylinder
Volume and mass increases
Pressure and temperature is constant
during this process
(a b): Compression
Inlet valve closes
Piston compresses air
Pressure rises until P at (b)
2
Temperature also increases
(b c): Delivery
Delivery valve opens
High pressure air is delivered
Pressure and temperature is constant
during this process

Delivery
valve
Induction
valve

v2
p
p2

p1 d
0

v1

a
e

Compression
process
is
reversible
n
polytropic and follows the law pV = C
5

4.3

WORK & INDICATED POWER

The work done on air for one cycle is the area in the graph (area
abcd)
Considering a polytropic process which follows the gas law PVn =
p
constant
Work for polytropic process is given by:
b
P2 c
p2v 2 p1v 1
Win

1 n
where

polytropic index of a gas

P1 d
0

a
e

Work input per cycle

Win

areaabcd
cycle
areaabef areabc0e areaad0f
p V p1Va p V pV
2b
2 b
1 a
n 1
p V p1v a (n 1)p2v b (n 1)p1v a
2b
n 1
n

p2Vb p1Va
n 1

Since p1Va mRT1

and

p2Vb mRT2

So, workinputper cycle

n
Win
mRT2 mRT1

cycle
n 1
n

mRT 2 T1
n 1

p
P2 c

P1 d
0

a
e

IndicatedPower
n
IP
m R T 2 T1
n 1
N m and
wherem
N R.p.m

EXAMPLE 4.1
A single stage reciprocating compressor operates by inducing
1m3/min of air at 1.013 bar and 15oC and delivers it at 7bar.
Assume the compression process being polytropic and the
polytropic index is 1.35. Calculate:
i.
Mass of air delivered per minute
ii.
Indicated power

SOLUTION
i.

Mass of air delivered per minute can be determine using

RT
pV m

pV

so m
RT

1.013 100 1 1.23 kg

m
0.287 15 273
min

ii.

n
m R T 2 T1
Indicated power can be determine using formula IP
n 1

Find T2 first using formula T 2 P2

T 1 P1
7

T 2 288

1.013

1.351
1.35

Indicated power; IP

n 1
n

475.4K
1.35
1.23

0.287 475.4 288

1.35 1 60

IndicatedPower 4.25kW

P (bar)
7

1.013
0

1
V

4.4

CONDITIONS FOR MINIMUM WORK

We know that the work done is equal to the area under the graph
The smaller the area the lesser the work and the better the
compressor
For reciprocating compressors, the pressure ratio is fixed, so the
height of p-v diagram is fixed
The volume of cylinder is also fixed so the line d-a is fixed
Therefore the area representing work depends the index n.
For n = 1,
pV = constant (Isothermal)
For n = ,
pV = constant (isentropic)
So, the process can be polytropic, isothermal or isentropic

10

pV =constant (isothermal)
pV =constant (isentropic)
pVn =constant (polytropic)
From here it can be seen
that the isothermal process
is the best because it
requires minimum work

p
P2 c

So it is best that the gas

temperature
is
constant
throughout the compression
cycle

b2
pV = C
pVn = C
pV = C

P1 d
0

b1

a
e
v2

f
v1

11

ISOTHERMAL WORK
Work area ab1ef area b1c0e - area ad0f
p2Vb1 ln

p1
p1Vb1 p1Va
p2

for isothermal process

p2
p1

Win

p2Vb1 ln

From

pV mRT

Win

mRT ln

p1Va p2Vb
p1Va ln

p2
p1
m RT ln

P2 c

b1

p2
p1

where T is the constant temperature

Isothermal power

p2
p1

pV = C

P1 d
0

a
e

12

4.6

ISOTHERMAL EFFICIENCY

Isothermal efficiency indicates isothermal work compared to the

indicated work.
IsothermalEfficiency,isoth

IsothermalWork
IndicatedWork

EXAMPLE 4.2

A single stage reciprocating compressor induce 1.23kg/min

of air at pressure 1.023 bar and temperature 23 oC and
delivers it at 8.5 bar. If its polytropic index is 1.3,
determine:
i.
Indicated power
ii.
Isothermal power
iii.
Isothermal efficiency

13

SOLUTION
1.23 kg , P1 1.023bar @ 102.3kPa
m
min
o
T1 23 C @ 296K andP2 8.5bar @ 850kPa

We know:

i.

Indicated power can be determine using IP

Find T2 first using formula T 2 P2

T 1 P1
850
T 2 293

102.3

1.31
1.3

n
m R T 2 T1
n 1

n 1
n

477.6K

Indicated power; IP

1.3
1.23

0.287 477.6 293

1.3 1 60

IndicatedPower 4.7kW

14

p2

p
1

ii. Isothermal power can be determine using W

isothermal m RT ln
1.23
850

0
.
287

296

ln

isothermal
60
102.3

3.68kW

iii. Isothermal efficiency can be determine using isoth

isothermal
power
indicatedpower

Wisothermal 3.68
isoth

0.78 @ 78%
IP
4.7

15

4.5

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY, m

Because there are moving mechanical parts in the compressor, it is

likely that losses will occur due to friction

Therefore power required to drive the compressor is actually more

higher than the indicated power

So there is need to measure the mechanical efficiency of the cycle

Mechanical efficiency of the compressor is given by:

indicatedpower

m requiredpower

Power system
[Power required]

>

Compressor
[Indicated power]

16

If Indicated power IP = 4.5 kW and mechanical efficiency, m is 0.8

the shaft power would be:
Shaftpower

4.5kW
5.625kW
0.8

17

4.7

CLEARANCE VOLUME (VC)

In actual compressors, piston does not reach the top of wall of the
cylinder.
Instead it reaches maximum stroke at a certain distance from the wall.
The remaining volume of the cylinder where piston does not travel
through is call the clearance volume VC.

The volume where the piston does travel through is called the swept
volume, VS.

Purpose to give freedom for working parts and space for valve
operations

18

Process
After delivery at (c) (volume is
VC, pressure is p2 and
temperature is T2). So, there are
some gas left in the cylinder
When piston moves downward,
this gas expands according to
PVn = C until p1 at (d).

Then induction begins (d a)

Then gas is compressed
according to PVn = C
Finally there is the delivery (b
c)

P
p2

b
PVn = C
PVn = C

p1

d
VC

a
VS

VC = Clearance volume
VS = Swept volume

19

Effect of VC

Because of the expansion of

gas remaining in the VC, induced
volume is reduced from swept
volume VS to (Va Vd) which is
the effective volume
V Va Vd

or

V Va Vd

Mass or air per unit time

a m
b and m
c m
d
m

P
p2

b
PVn = C
PVn = C

p1

d
VC

a
VS

Mass delivered per unit time =

mass induced per unit time
m
b m
c m
a m
d
m
20

INDICATED WORK & INDICATED POWER FOR

COMPRESSOR WITH CLEARANCE VOLUME
Work doneper cycle
W
cycle

areaabcd areaabef- areacefd

IndicatedpowerW

n
n
maR T 2 T1
md R T 2 T1
n 1
n 1
n
m a m d R T 2 T1

P
n 1

a m
d m
mass induc
becausem
ed per uni
t time
W

n
n
mR T 2 T1
mRT1

n 1
n 1

N m kg
wherem
min
N ma md kg
or m
min

p2

p
1

n 1
n

p2

b
PVn = C
PVn = C

p1

d
VC

a
v

VS

21

We see here that the work done per cycle and indicated power per unit mass
is the same whether with or without clearance

22

Double-acting Compressors

A single-acting compressor completes one compression cycle with one revolution of

the crank
A double-acting compressor completes two compression cycles with one revolution
of the crank
So the mass induce per revolution is twice than a single acting where
2 N m kg or m
2 N ma md kg
m
min
min
Delivery

Delivery

Induction

Induction

23

EXAMPLE 4.3

A single stage, double-acting compressor is required to deliver 8m3/min of

air measured at pressure of 1.013 bar and 15oC. Delivery pressure is 6 bar
and crank speed is 300rpm. The clearance volume is 5% of swept volume
and the compression index is 1.3. Calculate
i.
Swept volume, VS
ii.

Delivery temperature, T2

iii.

Indicated power

24

SOLUTION

We know: T1 15o C @ 288K andP1 1.013bar; P2 6bar andN 300rpm

Since it is double acting, per minute, it will

have 300 x 2 = 600 cycle that induces 8
m3. It means for one cycle it will induce;

P
c

PV1.3 = C

8
Va Vd
0.0133m3
600

i.

PV1.3 = C

Swept volume can be determine using the 1.013

information of the induced air volume per
cycle

d
VC

From the diagram

a
v

VS

Vs Va Vc
Vs Va 0.05Vs
Va 1.05Vs

(1)

25

From polytropic equation P1Vd P2Vc

P2

P
1

Vd Vc

1
n

1.013

0.05Vs

Vd 0.196Vs

1
1.3

PV1.3 = C
PV1.3 = C

(2)

3
Insert (1) and (2) in equation Va Vd 0.0133m

1.05 0.196Vs

0.0133m

Vs 0.0156m3 or 15.6litre

ii. Delivery temperature, T2 can be determine using

6

T 2 288

1
.
013

1.31
1.3

VC

T 2 P2

T 1 P1

a
v

VS
n 1
n

434.6K or 161.6o C

26

iii. Indicated power can be determine using IP

First, find mass induce per cycle

m

n
m R T 2 T1
n 1

P1 Va Vd 1.013 100 0.0133

0.0163kg

RT1
0.287 288

2 N m 2 300 0.0163 9.78 kg

Since it is double acting, m

min

using the value of V 8 m

NOTE: we can straight away obtain m
min

kg
P1V 1.013 100 8 9.8
m
min
RT1
0.287 288

n
1.3
9.78
IP
m R T 2 T1

0.287 434.2 288

n 1
1.3 1 60
IP 29.64kW

27

4.5

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY, v
Volumetric efficiency is another definition to measure the
performance of a compressor.
The are two ways how to define volumetric efficiency:
1st definition:
The ratio of the actual induced mass (mactual) in the cylinder
with ideal induced mass at free air condition (mideal). Free air
condition is basically the ambient condition
mactual

Where

P1 Va Vd
RT1

and

mideal

PoVs
RTo

Po is the ambient pressure

To is the ambient temperature

28

So by first definition,

p2

P1 Va Vd
P V Vd RT0
RT1
v
1 a

P0Vs
RT1
P0Vs
RT0

P0

T1

If assume P1 Po andT1 To , v

b
PVn = C
PVn = C

p1

V Vd P1 T 0
a
Vs

V Vd
a

d
VC

a
v

VS

Vs

Vs Vc Vd Vs Vc Vd

Vs
Vs Vs Vs

V
V
V V
v 1 c 1 d 1 c d 1
Vs
Vc
Vs Vc

(1)

29

n
n
Since P1Vd P2Vc

Vd

Vc

P
P2
V
andtherefore d 2
P1
Vc P1

1
n

Insert the above equation to equation (1) and we get

V
v 1 c
Vs

P2
P
1

1
n

NOTE:
The above equation is only true when Po=P1 and To=T1

30

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY, v

2nd definition:
The ratio of the actual volume (Vactual) in the cylinder that is
measured at free air condition with swept volume (Vs)
v

Vactual at freeair condition

Vs

We know that actual mass induced is

mactual

P1 Va Vd
RT1

If we measure actual mass induced at free air condition, it will be

mactual

Po Vactual
RTo

31

Combining the two mathematical definition, we get

Po Vactual P1 Va Vd

RTo
RT1

Vactual Va Vd

(1)

Insert equation (1) into v Vactual at freeair condition

v

P1 T 0

P0 T1

Va Vd P1 T 0
Vs

P0

Vs

T1

Note that the equation above is the same the one in the first
definition.

32

FREE AIR DELIVERY (FAD)

The actual volume of air induced or delivered that is measured at free

air temperature & pressure is called free air delivery (FAD).
Looking back at, FAD is Vactual FAD Va Vd
Where

P1 T 0

P0 T1

Po is the ambient pressure

To is the ambient temperature

For a single acting compressor, if N rpm, FAD can be defined as

P T
Vactual FAD Va Vd 1 0 N
P0 T1

For a double acting compressor,

P T
Vactual FAD Va Vd 1 0 2N
P0 T1

33

EXAMPLE 4.4

A single stage, single-acting compressor delivers 3m3/min of air measured

at pressure of 1.014bar and 23oC. During induction, pressure and
temperature or air is 0.98 bar and 43oC respectively. Delivery pressure is 6.5
bar and crank speed is 358 rpm. The clearance volume is 5% of swept
volume and the compression index is 1.3. Calculate
i.
Indicated power
ii.
Volumetric efficiency

34

SOLUTION

P
c

6.5

We know:

PV1.3 = C

T 0 23o C @ 296K andP0 1.014bar @ 101.4kPa

T1 43o C @ 316K andP1 0.98bar @ 98kPa
3
FAD 3m
, N 358 rpm andP2 6.5bar @ 650kPa
min

i.

Indicated power can be determine using

n
IP
m R T 2 T1
n 1

PV1.3 = C

0.98

d
VC

We know:

a
v

VS

Po FAD 101.4 3 3.58 kg

0.287 296
min
RTo

T2 can be determine using

6.5
T 2 316

0.98

1.31
1.3

T 2 P2

T 1 P1

n 1
n

489K

35

IP

ii.

n
1.3
3.58
m R T 2 T1

0.287 489 316 12.84kW

n 1
1.3 1 60

Vactual @ FAD
Volumetric efficiency can be determine using v
Vs

We know: m

P1 Va Vd
RT1

3.58 kg , FAD 3m
and m
min
min
3

R T1
m
3.58 0.287 316 3.31m3

Va Vd

min
P1
98

Since N = 358 rpm, Va Vd

3.31
358

0.00925m3

P
c

From the diagram

Vs Va Vc
Vs Va 0.05Vc
Va 1.05Vs

(1)
d
VC

a
VS

36

From polytropic equation P1Vd P2Vc

P2

P
1

Vd Vc

1
n

6.5

0.98

0.05Vs

Vd 0.214Vs

P2

1
1.3

(2)
P1

3
Insert (1) and (2) in equation Va Vd 0.00925m

1.05 0.214Vs

VC

0.00925m3

a
VS

Vs 0.011m3 or 11litre
3

Since N = 358 rpm, Vs 0.011 358 3.938m

min

Vactual @ FAD 3
0.76 @ 76%
v
V
3.938
s

37

4.6

MULTI-STAGING COMPRESSOR
When delivery pressure is
increased to a higher value,
several weaknesses were
found:

p4

Increase in delivery
temperature

p2

Decrease of volumetric
efficiency (FAD becomes lesser
were else no change in Vs)

p1

Induce volume will become

lesser

2.

To overcome those matter,

multi-staging compressor is
introduced

p3

1.

3.

VC

d d

VS

a
V

38

Coolant in
P1,Ta

Coolant out

Pi,Tb

Pi,Ta

P2,Tc

Intercooler
LP
Compressor

HP Compressor

It consist of more than one compressor where the air passes through
an intercooler before entering the next compressor.
The size of the next compressor is smaller to compromise Vs.
In the intercooler, heat is transferred to the surrounding and
temperature will decreased. It will be brought back to its inlet
temperature (before induction process).
It is assumed that all compressors will have the same polytropic
index.
39

a-b

PVn=C compression

b-e

Q from air to surrounding

P2

HP
CPMPRESSOR

Temperature drops from Tb to Te.

Ideally Te=Ta
e-f :

PVn=C compression

Pi

h
e

Advantages:

LP CPMPRESSOR

a. Slight increase in temperature

b. Increase in volumetric efficiency

P1

c. Saving in work ( shaded area)

Vc

Vs

***NOTES:
a. Since no mass is allow to escape during its travel, mLP = mHP
b. If pressure ratio and the ratio of Vc/Vs is the same, volumetric efficiency
for both compressor is the same.

40

EXAMPLE 4.5

In a single acting, two-stage reciprocating air compressor, 4.5 kg/min of air is

compressed from 1.013 bar and 15oC surrounding conditions through a
pressure ratio of 9 to 1. Both stages have the same pressure ratio, and the
law of compression and expansion in both stages is PV1.3=C. The clearance
volume of both stages are 5% of their respective swept volumes and it runs
at 300 rpm. If inter cooling is complete, calculate:
i.
Indicated power
ii.
Volumetric efficiency
iii.
Cylinder swept volumes required.
iv.
Shows the power saving on p -v diagram and get the value in
percentage.

41

SOLUTION

p(bar)
P2

We know:

4.5 kg , N 300rpm,T1 288K andn 1.3

m
min
P2
P
P
9 , 2 i andT1 Te
P1
Pi
P1

HP
COMPRESSOR

Pi

LP COMPRESSOR

i.

Indicated power can be determine using

IP IP HP IP LP
P2 P2 Pi Pi

P1 Pi P1 P1

1.013

2
Vc

Vs

Pi
93
P1
IP LP

n
R T i T1
m
n 1

42

 P
Ti
i
T 1 P1

n 1
n

p(bar)
P2

T i 288 3

1.31
1.3

371K

n
R T i T1
m
n 1
1.3
4.5

0.287 371 288 7.74kW

1.3 1 60

IP HP

n
R T 2 Te
m
n 1

T 2 P2

T e Pi

T i 288 3
IP HP

andTe T1

n 1
n

1.31
1.3

HP
COMPRESSOR

IP LP
IP LP

Pi

LP COMPRESSOR

1.013

Vc

Vs

371K

n
R T 2 Te 1.3 4.5 0.287 371 288 7.74kW
m
n 1
1.3 1 60

IP IP HP IP LP 7.74 2 15.48kW

43

ii.

Since pressure ratio for and the ratio of

Vc:Vs is the same for both stages,

p(bar)
P2

v LP v HP

HP
COMPRESSOR

We know that air is induced at free air

condition, so P1 Po andT1 To

Pi

V Vd P1 T 0 Va Vd
a
Vs

P0

T1

LP COMPRESSOR

1.013

m
4.5
m

0.015kg
cycle N
300

P1

Vs

We know

Va Vd m R T1

Vc

Vs

0.015 0.287 288

0.01224m3
1.013 100

44

From the diagram

p(bar)
P2

Vs Va Vc

Vs Va 0.05Vc

HP
COMPRESSOR

Va 1.05Vs

(1)
n

From polytropic equation P1Vd PiVc

Pi

P
1

Vd Vc

1
n

Pi

LP COMPRESSOR

0.05Vs 3

1
1.3

Vd 0.1164
Vs

(2)

1.013

Vc

Vs

3
Insert (1) and (2) in equation Va Vd 0.01224m

1.05 0.1164Vs

0.01224m3

Vs LP 0.013m3 or 13 litres

Va Vd
Vs

0.01224
0.94 or 94%
0.013
45

ii.

We already calculated Vs for LP

compressor. Since volumetric efficiency
for both stages is the same

Ve Vh
Vs

p(bar)
P2

HP
COMPRESSOR

0.94
Pi

We know m LP m HP andPi 3 P1 3.039bar

T e T1

Ve Vh m R Te

Pi

0.015 0.287 288

3.039 100

1.013

0.00408m

Ve Vh
v

LP COMPRESSOR

Vs

Vc

Vs

0.00408
0.00434m3 or 4.34litres
0.94

***NOTES:
Easier steps are shown in McConkey page 399-400

46

IDEAL INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE

The value chosen for the intermediate pressure pi influences the work
to be done on the air and its distribution between the stages.
dW
Minimum power happen when dP 0
i
n 1

n
P
n

RT1 i
RTe P2
W
m

n 1
n 1
P1

Pi

We know Te T1
W

mRT1
n 1

Pi

P1

n 1
n

P2

Pi

n 1
n

p(bar)

n 1
n

P2

HP
COMPRESSOR

Pi

LP COMPRESSOR

1.013

Vc

Vs

n 1
dW
2 nn1
n
P1P2
Pi
0
dPi

47

 P1P2

n 1
n

Pi

P1P2 Pi

2 n 1
n

Pi P2

P1 Pi

or

(pressure ratio is the same for each stage)

The total minimum work can be written as

W
mRT1
n 1

Pi

P
1

P2

P
1

W 2
mRT1
n 1

n 1
n

P
2
Pi
n 1
2n

n 1
n

So for compressor with Z stages, total minimum work is

n

W Z
mRT1
n 1

P2

P
1

n 1
Zn

48

EXAMPLE 4.6

A three stage, single acting compressor running in an atmosphere at 1.013

bar and 15oC has an FAD of 2.83 m3/min. The induced pressure and
temperature is 0.98 bar and 32oC respectively. The delivery pressure is 70
bar. Assuming complete intercooling, n =1.3 and that the machine is design
for minimum work, calculate the indicated power required.

SOLUTION
P0 FAD 1.013 100 2.83 3.47 kg
m
min
0.287 15 273
RT0

W Z
mRT1
n 1

P2

P
1

n 1
Zn

1.3 3.47
3

1.3 1 60

70
0.287 288

0.98

1.31
3 1.3

W 24.2kW

49