CHAPTER 4

Data Acquisition and

Representation
MEC 400
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING
AND PROBLEM SOLVING

It is important for engineers to be able to collect, record, evaluate, and

interpret experimental data.

Engineers normally obtain data either directly from mathematical models or

indirectly by means of comparison involved in measurements, namely,
testing and experimentation.

Though, testing and experimentation may be used interchangeably, they

have some differences as will be explained in the next section. The data
obtained from these measurements are then used to quantify the physical
process by relating numerical values to physical parameters and
variables.

Definitions for terms and terminologies related to data acquisition:

Measurement: a process of quantifying physical quantities using calibrated
instruments and established procedures to obtain numerical values of
varying degree called data.
Standard: a permanent or easily reproducible record of the quantity or
measurement
Calibration: the process of validating a measuring instrument into
agreement with the physical standard(s) upon which the instrument is
based.
Parameter: any of a set of physical quantities whose value characterize
some aspect of the system or model and remains unchanged, at least for
the duration of the investigation
Variable: a quantity that may change during the course of investigation.
There are two types of variable: dependent and independent variables
Engineering testing: measurement conducted to validate the performance of
the system, process, or mathematical models which was done before.
Engineering experimentation: measurement to discover something new or
previously not known or to demonstrate something suspected.

General Guidelines When Conducting Experiment

The following guidelines serve as a common rule when performing an
engineering experimentation or testing.

Follow all laboratory procedures and precautions attentively and in some

cases, strictly. Some of the laboratory equipment may be very delicate,
sensitive and expensive, so it must be handled with extreme care, or that
sometimes you may have to deal with hazardous materials. So, do not play
around in the laboratory.

Use formal data sheets or notebooks to record all data and other
observations.

General Guidelines When Conducting Experiment

Record all information about instruments and experimental apparatus used.

For illustration purpose, sketch the physical arrangement of the equipment

used.

Calibrate all your measuring instruments for its validity before you start
using them. Read or review equipment manuals for instrument accuracy
and precision.

Make all measurements as accurately and reasonably as economics will

allow. In certain cases only rough estimates are required since only a
minimal accuracy in measurement is needed. Note that, however, although
care has been exercised some degree of inconsistency will inevitably
develop in all experimental work which necessitates the need of error
analysis.

When recording data, write down each entry clearly and eligibly. Do not
erase your data or observations, even if it is a mistake. Simply cancels it by
drawing a line across it. This is just in case when you want to refer to it later.

Have your data verified before leaving the laboratory. Often your instructor
or lab assistant will be able to help you confirming your results. Some data
sheet even requires an endorsement from the respective authority.

Format of formal report

1. Objective Section-state aim and objectives clearly
2. Equipment Section-list equipment with sketches and diagrams duly labeled
with figure number
3. Theory Section- brief mention of theory or related equations
4. Procedure or Methodology Section-write in steps how the experiment is
conducted
5. Data Section-properly rounded and use appropriate significant figures
6. Calculations Section-sample calculation, error analysis in logical sequence
7. Results Section-tabular, graphical or combination of both forms
8. Conclusion Section-achievement related to objectives, practical application,
validity, errors encountered, suggestions for improvement

Suggestion format for this course

1. Objectives of the Experiment
2. Results
3. Discussions of Results
4. Sample Calculations
5. Appendices

Empirical function are generally defined as those based on values from

experiment and observation rather than theory.
Mathematical expressions can be modeled to fit experimental functions
Types of empirical functions :
Linear : y = mx + c :
Linear function will plot as a straight line.

Exponential: y = a e mx
When plotted on semilog paper will be linear
In log form
log y=mx log e + log a

Power : y = ax
In log form

log y=m log x + log a

Periodic : y = sin
repeats its values in regular intervals or periods. The most important
examples are the trigonometric functions, which repeat over intervals of
length 2.
are used throughout science to describe oscillations, waves, and other
phenomena that exhibit periodicity

Different methods or techniques are available to arrive at the best straight

line fit.
Three methods commonly employed for finding the best fit are as below:
1. Selected points method
2. Average method-line location is positioned to make algebraic sum of
absolute values of the differences between observed and calculated
values of the ordinate equal to 0
3. Least square method

Selected points method

Determine equation that best fit data that exhibit linear relationship.
( y = mx + c )
Select line that goes through as many data points as possible and has
approximately the same no of data points on either side of line.
Select two points on the line at a reasonable distance apart:
lets say A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), the slope m is determined as

y2 y1
m
x2 x1

(1)

the y-intercept c may be either obtained directly from the graph or by

substituting point A or point B back into the equation. Rearranging the
equation y = mx + c in the form c = y mx and using point A(x1, y1) for
example, we have
c = y1 mx1
(2)

Selected points method

Least square method

Known as regression analysis.
Regression analysis is a study of the relationships among variables. It is
used to determine a curve that minimizes the error and provides a good
approximation to the physical problem
Linear regression (simplest form) - using a straight line to fit a set of data
points (x1,y1), (x2, y2), ..., (xn, yn)
where the dependent variable y and the independent variable x have linear
relationship. The equation of the straight line is
y = mx + c + e
c = y-intercept
m = slope of the linear line
e = error between the measured y value and the approximate value given by equation y* = mx
+c.

The error (or residual) may be rewritten as

y = y* + e
or
e = y y*
y

y*
x

Figure 5e Linear regression and error definition

The best straight line would be the one that minimize the total
error. Several criteria may be used. However, a more practical
criterion for least-squares approach is to minimize the sum of the
squares of the residuals (Sr), that is
n

minimize Sx =
=

2
i

i 1

y
i 1

mxi ci

Thus, we need to determine the value of m and c that fulfills the equation. This can
be achieved by differentiating with respect to each coefficient and set the
derivatives equal to zero. The differentiations are not presented here. The resulting
expressions are:
nc + m xi = yi
c xi + m xi2 = xi yi
In matrix
form=>

xi c

xi

2
x
i m

These equations are called the normal

equations. They can be solved using
Cramers rule for m and c to obtain

yi

xi yi

m=

C=

x y x y
n x x
i

2
i

m
n

Error Quantification in Linear Regression

To determine whether the straight line is a good fit to the set of
data or not, one may need to compute the coefficient of correlation
r in the following manner

x y x y
n x x n y y
n

r=
Interpretation of r,
r=1

2
i

2
i

the straight line is a good fit to the data (i.e all the data lie precisely on the line)

r=0

the straight line is not a good fit to the data (i.e data scattered randomly and do
not fit a straight line)

0<r<1

100r2 % of change in x is accounted for change in y.

For example, when r = 0.8, then 100(0.8)2 = 64 % which may be interpreted as 64% of change in y is due to change in x.

Statistical Analysis
Science of decision making in uncertain situation
n

mean, x i 1

: s tan dard deviation( SD ), s

For small samples:

xi x 2

0.5

x x

: SD entire population ,

n n 1

: var iance, s 2

x
i

n 1

0.5

Example : Fit a least square line to following data and find trend value
X

There are 5 data points => n = 5. Constructing the table for various terms as
follows.
xi

yi

xi2

x i yi

yi2

Combining relevant equations, m, c, and r are obtained