Course Objective

To

know the various power

quality phenomenon, their origin
and monitoring and mitigation
methods.

To

know the effects of various

power quality phenomenon in
various
equipments/working
condition.

POWER QUALITY
Maintaining

a sinusoidal waveform
of bus voltages/currents at rated
voltage/current and frequency.
The waveform of electric power at
generation stage is purely sinusoidal
and free from any distortion.

However,

devices
waveform.

there
are
that
distort

many
the

These
distortions
may
propagate all over the electrical
network.

Modern Utility System

Modern Utility System- Deregulation

Independent System Operator

Distributed generations
Wind Energy
Solar Energy
Co-generation plants
Load as Customer Demand

CAUSES OF POWER
DETERIORATION
1. Natural causes:

QUALITY

Faults or lighting strikes on

transmission lines or distribution
feeders
Falling of trees or branches on
distribution
feeders
during
stormy
conditions,
equipment
failure etc.

2. Due to Non-linear loads (Equipment) or

transmission line / feeder operation:

Transformer energisation
Capacitor or feeder switching
Power electronic loads (UPS, ASD,
converters etc.)
Arc furnaces and induction heating
systems
Switching on or off of large loads
etc.

SOURCES OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

1. Load equipment and components
Converters, Pulse modulated loads, Machine drives,
Arc furnaces, Computers, UPS, Television sets
Fluorescent and other gas discharge lighting
Certain components which employ magnetic circuits
2. Subsystems of the transmission and distribution
system
Grounding systems, resonant systems

Power quality is ultimately a

consumer-driven issue, we define
power quality as,

PQ DEFINITION :
Any power problem

manifested in
voltage, current, or frequency
deviations that result in failure or
misoperation
of
customer
equipment.

Power Quality = Voltage Quality

The utility can only control the
quality of the voltage; it has no
control over the currents that
particular loads might draw.
Therefore, the standards in the
power quality area are devoted to
maintaining the supply voltage
within certain limits.

Load current changed due to variety of disturbance

Generators may provide a nearperfect sine wave voltage, the

current
passing
through
the
impedance of the system can cause
a variety of disturbances to the
voltage. For example,

1.

Current resulting from a short

circuit causes the voltage to sag or
disappear completely.

2. Currents from lightning strokes

passing through the power system
cause
high-impulse
voltages
that
frequently flash over insulation and
lead to other phenomena, such as short
circuits.
3. Distorted currents from harmonicproducing loads also distort the voltage
as they pass through the system
impedance. Thus a distorted voltage is
presented to other end users.

Increased concern about the quality of

electric power all utility customers.
Utility customers always want to
increase productivity
Manufacturers
- want
faster,
more
productive,
more
efficient
machinery
Utilities- encourage
this
effort
because it helps their customers
become more profitable

Example for Linear loads

Example for Nonlinear loads

Example for Nonlinear loads- contd.,

Typical PQ Problems

PQ Problems

Classification

of power quality
according to the source
Converters
Magnetic circuit non linearity
Arc furnace or by the wave
shape of the signal such as
harmonics, Flicker or by the
frequency spectrum (radio
frequency interference).

PQ Phenomenon characterized
by wave shape
Synchronous phenomena
synchronism with A.C waveform at
power frequency.

Non-Synchronous phenomena.

IEC classifies electromagnetic phenomena into the groups

Conducted low-frequency phenomena
Harmonics, interharmonics
Signal systems (power line carrier)
Voltage fluctuations (flicker)
Voltage dips and interruptions
Voltage imbalance (unbalance)
Power frequency variations
Induced low-frequency voltages
DC in ac networks
Radiated low-frequency phenomena
Magnetic fields
Electric fields
Conducted high-frequency phenomena
Induced continuous-wave (CW) voltages or currents
Unidirectional transients
Oscillatory transients
Radiated high-frequency phenomena
Magnetic fields
Electric fields
Electromagnetic fields Continuous waves
Transients
Electrostatic discharge phenomena (ESD)
Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP)

Power Quality Phenomena

Types, Characteristics,
and their Origin

1.Transients
It can be
categories,

classified

1.Impulsive
2.Oscillatory

into

two

Impulsive transient
It is a sudden, nonpower frequency
change in the steady-state condition
of voltage, current, or both.
It

is unidirectional in polarity
(primarily either positive or negative).
Impulsive

transients are normally

characterized by their rise and decay
times, which can also be revealed by
their spectral content.

For example,
1.2X50-sec,2000-volt(V)
impulsive transient nominally rises
from zero to its peak value of 2000 V
in 1.2s and then decays to half its
peak value in 50s .

The

most common cause of impulsive

transients is lightning.

Oscillatory Transient
It

is a sudden, nonpower frequency

change in the steady-state condition
of voltage, current, or both.

It

includes
both
positive
negative polarity values.

It

and

consists of a voltage or current

whose instantaneous value changes
polarity rapidly.

It

is described by its spectral

content
(predominate
frequency),
duration, and magnitude.

The

spectral
defined are

content

High
Medium
Low frequency

subclasses

HF:

Primary Freq component >

500khz mesd in MicroSec duration
Local
sys
response to
Impulsive
Transient

Med

Freq:
Primary
Freq
component 5-500khz mesd in MicroSec
duration - Back-to-back capacitor
energization

Low

Freq: Primary Freq component

<5khz
mesd in MicroSec duration 0.3

1.Med.Oscillatory Transient
due to capacitor switching
due to Cable switching

2.Low Freq Osc.transient due to capacitor bank

energization

3.Low Freq Osc.transient due to ferroresonance in

Transformer

Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than 300 Hz can also be
found on the distribution system.
These are generally associated with ferroresonance and transformer
energization.

SHORT DURATION VARIATIONS

Each type of variation can be designated as,
1.Instantaneous,
2.Momentary,
3.Temporary, depending on its duration
[interruptions, sag and swell are common for all].
CAUSES
1.Fault conditions
2.The energization of large loads which require high
starting currents
3.Intermittent loose connections in power wiring.
Depending on the fault location and the system
conditions, the fault can cause either temporary voltage
drops (sags), voltage rises (swells), or a complete loss of
voltage (interruptions).

Interruption
An interruption occurs when the supply
voltage or load current decreases to less
than 0.1 pu for a period of time not
exceeding 1 min.

Causes of Interruption
result

of power system faults

equipment failure and control system
malfunction

INTERRUPTION contd.,
The

interruptions are measured by their duration

since the voltage magnitude is always less than 10
percent of nominal.

The

duration of an interruption due to a fault on

the utility system is determined by the operating
time of utility protective devices.

Instantaneous

reclosing generally will limit the

interruption caused by a nonpermanent fault to less
than 30 cycles.

Delayed

reclosing of the protective device may

cause a momentary or temporary interruption.

The

duration of an interruption due to equipment

malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.

Figure

shows such a momentary interruption during

which voltage on one phase sags to about 20 percent
for about 3 cycles and then drops to zero for about
1.8 s until the recloser closes back in.

Temporary interruption due to fault

Sags (dips)
A sag is a decrease in rms voltage or current
between 0.1 to 0.9 pu at rated power frequency for
durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
Causes of Voltage sags

Associated with system faults

Energization of heavy loads
Starting of large motors.
Sag durations are subdivided here
categories such as,
Instantaneous (0.5-30 Cycles)
(30 Cycles-3sec)
Momentary
(3sec 1 min)
Temporary

into

three

Example:- voltage sag that can be associated with a

single- line-to-ground (SLG) fault on another feeder
from the same substation.

Example:- Voltage sag due to large motor

starting. An induction motor will draw 6 to 10
times its full load current during start-up.

In

this case, the voltage sags immediately to 80 percent and then gradually
returns to normal in about 3 s.
Note the difference in time frame between this and sags due to utility
system faults.

Swells
A swell is defined as an increase in rms voltage or
current from 1.1 to 1.8 pu at rated power frequency
for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
Swells

are characterized by their magnitude (rms

value) and duration.
Swell durations are subdivided here
categories such as,
Instantaneous (0.5-30 Cycles)
(30 Cycles-3sec)
Momentary
(3sec 1 min)
Temporary

into

three

Causes of Voltage Swell

-Associated with system faults

Energization of large Capacitor bank

Switching off large load

The severity of a voltage swell during a

fault condition is a function of
Fault location
System impedance
Grounding

Voltage Swell due to Single line to Ground fault

Long-Duration Voltage Variations

Long-duration

variations encompass
root-mean-square (rms) deviations at
power frequencies for longer than 1
min.
It can be
Overvoltages

undervoltages.
Sustained

interruption

OVERVOLTAGE
Increase

in the rms ac voltage greater than

110 percent at the power frequency for a
duration longer than 1 min.
CAUSES
1.load switching (e.g., switchingoff a large
load or energizing a capacitor bank)
2. Incorrect tap settings on transformers
can also result in system overvoltages.

EFFECT
The overvoltages

result because either the

system is too weak for the desired voltage
regulation or voltage controls are inadequate.

Overvoltages

and
undervoltages
generally are not the result of system
faults, but are caused by load
variations on the system and system
switching operations.

Long-duration

displayed as
versus time.

variations are typically

plots of rms voltage

UNDERVOLTAGE
Decrease

in the rms ac voltage to less than

90 percent at the power frequency for a
duration longer than 1 min.

1.load

switching (e.g., switching on a large

load or overloading)
2. Due to fault on the lines
CAUSES

1.A load switching on or a capacitor bank

switching off can cause an under voltage
until
voltage regulation equipment on
the system
can bring the voltage back
to within tolerances.
2.Overloaded circuits can result in
undervoltages

SUSTAINED INTERRUPTION
When

the supply voltage has been zero for a period

of time in excess of 1 min, the long-duration voltage
variation is considered a sustained interruption.

This

term has been defined to be more specific

regarding the absence of voltage for long periods.
CAUSES

1.Power system faults

2.Equipment failures
3.Control malfunctions

Voltage Imbalance (voltage unbalance)

Voltage

imbalance (or unbalance) is defined as the ratio

of the negative or zero sequence component to the
positive sequence component.

Source
Generally result from unbalanced loads
Single-phase loads on a three-phase circuit (<2%)
Result of failure in any one phase of a three-phase
capacitor bank
Severe voltage unbalance (>5%) can result from singlephasing conditions

Voltage Imbalance under

unbalanced load condition

Waveform Distortion
It is defined as a steady-state deviation from an
ideal sine wave of power frequency principally
characterized by the spectral content of the
deviation.
Five types of waveform distortion

DC offset
Harmonics
Inter harmonics
Notching
Noise

DC offset
The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac
power system is termed dc offset.
HARMONICS
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having
frequencies that are integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to
operate.
IEEE

Standard 519-1992 provides guidelines for

harmonic current and voltage distortion levels on
distribution and transmission circuits.

Periodically

distorted waveforms can be

decomposed into a sum of the fundamental
frequency and the harmonics.
Harmonic distortion originates in the
nonlinear characteristics of devices and loads
on the power system.

Harmonic

distortion levels are described by

the
complete
harmonic
spectrum
with
magnitudes and phase angles of each individual
harmonic component.

Total

harmonic distortion (THD), as a measure of

the effective value of harmonic distortion.

THD

- used to characterize both current and

voltage waves. However THD refers distortion in
voltage wave

Figure

illustrates the waveform and harmonic

spectrum for a typical adjustable-speed-drive(ASD)
input current.

Total Harmonic distortion (THD)

IEEE 519 sets limits on total harmonic
distortion (THD) for the utility side of the
meter
Utility is responsible for the voltage
distortion at the point of common coupling
(PCC) between the utility and the end user.
Total harmonic distortion is a way to
evaluate the voltage distortion effects of
injecting harmonic currents into the utilitys
system.

Total Harmonic distortion (THD) =

(RMS of the harmonic content / RMS value of the
fundamental) * 100
Total harmonic distortion (THD) is a term used to
describe the net deviation of a nonlinear waveform
from ideal sine waveform characteristics.

Example: Find the total harmonic distortion of

a voltage waveform with the following
harmonic frequency make up:
Fundamental = V1 = 114 V
3rd harmonic = V3 = 4 V
5th harmonic = V5 = 2 V
7th harmonic = V7 = 1.5 V
9th harmonic = V9 = 1 V

THD = (4.82/114) 100 =4.23%

Total Demand Distortion (TDD)

IEEE 519 sets limits total demand distortion
(TDD) for the end-user side of the meter.
(RMS

of the harmonic current / RMS value

of Maximum Demand Load Current ) * 100

Expressed

current.

TDD

as

percent

of

rated

load

deals with evaluating the current

distortions caused by harmonic currents in the
end-user facilities.

Total Demand Distortion (TDD)- contd.,

INTERHARMONICS
Voltages or currents having frequency components
that are non-integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.
Sources of Interharmonic Waveform Distortion

Static frequency converters

Cycloconverters
Induction furnaces
Arcing devices

NOTCH
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by
the normal operation of power electronic devices
when current is commutated from one phase to
another

NOISE
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with
broadband spectral content lower than 200 kHz
superimposed upon the power system voltage or
current in phase conductors, or found on neutral
conductors or signal lines.
SOURCES
Power electronic devices, Control circuits, Arcing
equipment, Loads with solid-state rectifiers, and
Switching power supplies.

VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION (VOLTAGE

FLICKER)

Voltage
fluctuations
are
systematic
variations of the voltage envelope or a series
of random voltage changes, the magnitude of
which does not normally exceed the voltage
ranges specified by ANSI C84.1 of 0.9 to
1.1 pu.

SOURCE

Loads

that can exhibit continuous, rapid

variations in the load current magnitude can
cause voltage variations that are often
referred to as flicker.

Power Frequency Variations

Power frequency variations are defined as the
deviation of the power system fundamental frequency
from it specified nominal value.

CBEMA Curve
A

set of curves representing the withstanding

capabilities of computers in terms of the magnitude
and duration of the voltage disturbance.

Developed

by the Computer Business

Manufacturers Association (CBEMA)

Equipment

The

axes represent magnitude and duration of the

event.

Points

below the envelope are presumed to cause the

load to drop out due to lack of energy.

Points

above the envelope are presumed to cause

other malfunctions such as insulation failure, over
voltage trip, and over excitation.

ITIC Curve
A set of curves published by the Information
Technology Industry Council (ITIC) representing the
withstand capabilities of computers connected to
120-V power systems in terms of the magnitude and
duration of the voltage disturbance.
The ITIC curve replaces the curves originally
developed by the ITIs predecessor organization
CBEMA.