Overview

Course introduction
Neural Processing: Basic Issues
Neural Communication: Basics
Vision, Motor Control: Models

Neural Communication: 1
Communication within and
between cells

Transmission of information
Information must be transmitted
within each neuron
and between neurons

The Membrane
The membrane surrounds the neuron.
It is composed of lipid and protein.

The Resting Potential

+
-

Resting potential of neuron = -70mV

outside

There is an electrical charge across the membrane.

This is the membrane potential.
The resting potential (when the cell is not firing) is a
70mV difference between the inside and the outside.

inside

Artists rendition of a typical cell membrane

Ions and the Resting Potential

Ions are electrically-charged molecules e.g. sodium (Na+), potassium (K+),

chloride (Cl-).
The resting potential exists because ions are concentrated on different sides of
the membrane.

Na+ and Cl- outside the cell.

K+ and organic anions inside the cell.

Na+

Organic anions (-)

K+

Cl-

Na+

Na+

Na+

K
Organic anions (-)
+

Cl-

outside

inside
Organic anions (-)

Ions and the Resting Potential

Ions are electrically-charged molecules e.g. sodium (Na+), potassium (K+),

chloride (Cl-).
The resting potential exists because ions are concentrated on different sides of
the membrane.

Na+ and Cl- outside the cell.

K+ and organic anions inside the cell.

Na+

Organic anions (-)

K+

Cl-

Na+

Na+

Na+

K
Organic anions (-)
+

Cl-

outside

inside
Organic anions (-)

Maintaining the Resting

Potential

Na+ ions are actively transported (this uses

energy) to maintain the resting potential.
The sodium-potassium pump (a membrane
protein) exchanges three Na+ ions for two K+ ions.
Na

Na+

Na+
outside

K+

K+

inside

Neuronal firing: the action

potential
The action potential is a rapid
depolarization of the membrane.
It starts at the axon hillock and passes
quickly along the axon.
The membrane is quickly repolarized to
allow subsequent firing.

Before Depolarization

Action potentials: Rapid

depolarization

When partial depolarization reaches the activation

threshold, voltage-gated sodium ion channels open.
Sodium ions rush in.
The membrane potential changes from -70mV to +40mV.

+
-

Na+

Na

Na+

Depolarization

Action potentials: Repolarization

Sodium ion channels close and become refractory.

Depolarization triggers opening of voltage-gated potassium ion channels.
K+ ions rush out of the cell, repolarizing and then hyperpolarizing the
membrane.

Na+

Na

Na+

K+

K+

+
-

Repolarization

The Action Potential

The action potential is all-or-none.
It is always the same size.
Either it is not triggered at all - e.g. too
little depolarization, or the membrane is
refractory;
Or it is triggered completely.

CourseoftheActionPotential
Theactionpotentialbeginswithapartialdepolarization(e.g.fromfiringofanother
neuron)[A].
Whentheexcitationthresholdisreachedthereisasuddenlargedepolarization[B].
Thisisfollowedrapidlybyrepolarization[C]andabriefhyperpolarization[D].
Thereisarefractoryperiodimmediatelyaftertheactionpotentialwhereno
depolarizationcanoccur[E]

+40

Membrane
potential 0
(mV)

[C]

[B]

[E]

[A]

[D]

-70

excitation threshold

Time (msec)

Action Potential

Local Currents depolarize adjacent channels causing

depolarization and opening of adjacent Na channels
Question: Why doesnt the action potential travel backward?

Conduction of the action

potential.

Passive conduction will ensure that adjacent

membrane depolarizes, so the action potential
travels down the axon.
But transmission by continuous action potentials
is relatively slow and energy-consuming
(Na+/K+ pump).
A faster, more efficient mechanism has evolved:
saltatory conduction.
Myelination provides saltatory conduction.

Myelination

Most mammalian axons are myelinated.

The myelin sheath is provided by oligodendrocytes and
Schwann cells.
Myelin is insulating, preventing passage of ions over the
membrane.

Saltatory Conduction

Myelinated regions of axon are electrically insulated.

Electrical charge moves along the axon rather than across the
membrane.
Action potentials occur only at unmyelinated regions: nodes of
Ranvier.

Myelin sheath

Node of Ranvier

Synaptic transmission

Information is transmitted from the presynaptic

neuron to the postsynaptic cell.
Chemical neurotransmitters cross the synapse,
from the terminal to the dendrite or soma.
The synapse is very narrow, so transmission is
fast.

Structure of the synapse

An action potential causes neurotransmitter

release from the presynaptic membrane.
Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic
cleft.
They bind to receptors within the postsynaptic
membrane, altering the membrane potential.
terminal

extracellular fluid
synaptic cleft

presynaptic membrane
postsynaptic membrane

dendritic spine

Neurotransmitter release

Ca2+ causes vesicle membrane to fuse with

presynaptic membrane.
Vesicle contents empty into cleft: exocytosis.
Neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic
cleft.

Ca2+

Ionotropic receptors (ligand gated)

Synaptic activity at ionotropic receptors
is fast and brief (milliseconds).
Acetylcholine (Ach) works in this way
at nicotinic receptors.
Neurotransmitter binding changes the
receptors shape to open an ion
channel directly.

ACh

ACh

Ionotropic Receptors

Metabotropic Receptors (G-Protein)

Excitatory postsynaptic
potentials (EPSPs)
Opening of ion channels which leads to
depolarization makes an action potential more likely,
hence excitatory PSPs: EPSPs.

Inside of post-synaptic cell becomes less negative.

Na+ channels (NB remember the action potential)
Ca2+ . (Also activates structural intracellular changes ->
learning.)

Na+

Ca2+

outside

inside

Inhibitory postsynaptic
potentials (IPSPs)
Opening of ion channels which leads to
hyperpolarization makes an action potential less
likely, hence inhibitory PSPs: IPSPs.

Inside of post-synaptic cell becomes more negative.

K+ (NB remember termination of the action potential)
Cl- (if already depolarized)

Cl-

outside

inside

Postsynaptic Ion motion

Requirements at the synapse

For the synapse to work properly, six basic events need to happen:
Production of the Neurotransmitters

Storage of Neurotransmitters

SV

Release of Neurotransmitters
Binding of Neurotransmitters

Synaptic vesicles (SV)

Lock and key

Generation of a New Action Potential

Removal of Neurotransmitters from the Synapse

reuptake

Integration of information

PSPs are small. An individual EPSP will not produce

enough depolarization to trigger an action potential.
IPSPs will counteract the effect of EPSPs at the
same neuron.
Summation means the effect of many coincident
IPSPs and EPSPs at one neuron.
If there is sufficient depolarization at the axon
hillock, an action potential will be triggered.

axon hillock

Three Nobel Prize Winners on

Synaptic Transmission
Arvid Carlsson discovered dopamine is a neurotransmitter.
Carlsson also found lack of dopamine in the brain of
Parkinson patients.
Paul Greengard studied in detail how neurotransmitters
carry out their work in the neurons. Dopamine activated a
certain protein (DARPP-32), which could change the function
of many other proteins.
Eric Kandel proved that learning and memory processes
involve a change of form and function of the synapse,
increasing its efficiency. This research was on a certain
kind of snail, the Sea Slug (Aplysia). With its relatively low
number of 20,000 neurons, this snail is suitable for
neuron research.

Neuronal firing: the action

potential
The action potential is a rapid
depolarization of the membrane.
It starts at the axon hillock and passes
quickly along the axon.
The membrane is quickly repolarized to
allow subsequent firing.

Overview
Course introduction
Neural Processing: Basic Issues
Neural Communication: Basics
Vision, Motor Control: Models

MotorControl:Basics

HierarchicalOrganizationof
MotorSystem

PrimaryMotorCortexandPremotorAreas

Primary motor cortex (M1)

Hip
Trunk

Arm

Hand

Foot

Face

Tongue

Larynx

MotorControlBasics
ReflexCircuits
UsuallyBrainstem,spinalcordbased
Interneuronscontrolreflexbehavior
CentralPatternGenerators

CorticalControl

postsynaptic
neuron
scienceeducation.nih.gov

FlexorCrossed
Extensor
Reflex
(Sheridan
1900)

Reflex
Circuits
With
Inter-neurons

Painful Stimulus

 an informal computational

Gaits of the cat:

model