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Engineering Thermodynamics 1
THRM1001
Basic Concepts and Definitions

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Applied Thermodynamics

The science of the

relationship between heat,
work, and system
properties. It is concerned
with the means necessary
to convert heat energy from
available sources (such as
chemical fuel, nuclear
energy, renewable energy)
into mechanical work.
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2. Basic concepts and definitions

A thermodynamic system is a designated part of the universe,

enclosed by an imaginary system boundary, that we select for analysis.
It is represented by a dashed line. Everything that is not inside the
system boundary is considered to be the surroundings or environment.
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2. Basic concepts and definitions

There are three main streams of concern for any system.
1. Mass Stream
2. Heat Stream
3. Work Stream
Gases flowing
in and exiting
the expander

Shaft work produced

by the expander

Heat exiting the walls of

the expander

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Types of Systems

There are three main types of

systems
Closed systems
Isolated systems
Open systems

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2. Types of Systems
Closed systems (also known as control mass systems) incorporate a fixed
amount of mass. Energy (work and heat) can cross the boundary, but mass
cannot cross the boundary. The boundary can move, expand, and contract as
necessary to enclose the fixed system mass.

Heat enters balloon

AIR

Air particles cannot

cross the balloon
boundary.
As the air particles gain kinetic energy
the balloon expands causing the
system boundary to expand/move. 6

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2. Types of Systems
Closed systems
Piston-Cylinder
arrangement showing a
movable system boundary.

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Types of Systems
Open systems (also known as control volume systems) allow
both mass and energy (heat and work) to cross the boundary. The
boundary can still move and it can contain different amounts of
mass at different times. E.g. an expander
mass in

mass out
The boundary of an open system is called a control surface.

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Types of Systems
An isolated system is a special case of a closed system in which neither
mass nor energy can cross the boundary. E.g. cooler, thermos

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Choosing a system boundary

The choice of a system boundary is governed by two
considerations:
(1) what is known about the possible system, particularly at
its boundaries
(2) the objectives of the analysis

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Choosing a system boundary

For example, consider the sketch of an air
compressor connected to a storage tank. The
system boundary shown on the figure encloses

the compressor , tank, and all of the piping. This

boundary might be selected if the electrical power
input were known and the objective of the
analysis were to determine how long the
compressor may operate for the pressure in the
W

tank to rise to a specific vale. A control volume

comprising only the compressor might be chosen
if the condition of the air entering and exiting the
compressor were known, and the objective were
to determine the electric power input
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2.2 Properties states and processes

2.2.1 Properties
A thermodynamic property is a quantity that describes the state of a
system and is independent of the path to the state.
Properties can be directly or indirectly observed. Examples are given in
the table below.
Directly Observable

Indirectly Observable

Pressure, p

Density, p

Temperature, T

Internal energy, U

Volume, V*

Enthalpy, H

Mass, m

Entropy, S

* Some texts use V as velocity so pay attention to the nomenclature used

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2.2 Properties states and processes

Thermodynamic properties are either
intensive or
extensive.

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2.2 Properties states and processes

Extensive properties varies with mass and depend on the size or extent of the
system,
mass,
total volume
The value of an extensive property for an overall system is the sum of its value for the
parts into which the system is divided, i.e. it is additive.
Total mass= mass 1+mass2+mass3

m1
m2
m3

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2.2 Properties states and processes

Intensive properties are independent of mass, and are not additive, e.g. temperature,
pressure, specific volume. The system has the same value for any part of a
homogenous system as it does for the whole system.

Total temperature T1+T2+T3

T1
T2
T3

Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive. An intensive

property can be measured without knowledge of the systems mass.
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2.2 Properties states and processes

If the value of any extensive property is

divided by the mass of the system, the
resulting property is intensive and is called a
specific property. A specific property is
normally depicted by use of common letters
e.g. Specific Volume,v .

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2.2 Properties states and processes

2.2.2

States

A state refers to a combination of two or more observable

macroscopic thermodynamic properties. The state of a
system is defined by the values of its properties.
In other words a state is the collection of all its
thermodynamic properties at a given instant.

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A system at two
states: The initial
state or state 1
and the final state
or state 2.

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2.2 Properties states and processes

A phase is a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in
both chemical composition and physical structure.
In each phase the substance may exist at various thermodynamic states.
Phases of water would be steam, liquid, and ice. A system can compose
of one or more phases. For example, a system of steam and water
comprise two phases.
When more than one phase is present, the phases are separated by
phase boundaries. Note that gases, say oxygen and nitrogen can be
mixed in any proportion to form a single gas phase
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Properties states and processes

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2.2 Properties states and processes

A pure substance is one that is uniform
and invariable in chemical composition.
A pure substance can exist in more than
one phase but its chemical composition
must be the same in each phase.
For example, a mixture of water and steam
form a system with two phases and can be
regarded as a pure substance because
each phase has the same composition. A
uniform mixture of gases can be regarded
as a pure substance provided it remains a
gas and does not react chemically.
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2.2 Properties states and processes

Equilibrium
A system is in thermal equilibrium when the temperature is the
same throughout the system, i.e. thermal equilibrium is directly
related to temperature.
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if no changes can occur
in the state of the system without the aid of an external stimulus. We
can test if a system is in equilibrium by isolating it and observing
whether any changes in it occur.

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2.2 Properties states and processes

For the system to be in equilibrium:
the temperature must be the same throughout the system;
there can be no eddying motions of the fluid; and
the system must be homogenous throughout or contain finite number
of homogenous parts.
Thermodynamics usually deal with systems in equilibrium since this
allows properties e.g. p and T to be assigned single specific values.

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2.2 Properties states and processes

2.2.3

Processes

Whenever one or more of a systems properties change, a change in state occurs. A change
of a system from one state to another is called a process. The path of the process is the
series of states through which the system passes during the process. Processes are of two
types:
P

1 and 2 are different states

1-2 represents a process

1-A-2, 1-B-2 and 1-C-2 represent

different paths for the same
process

B
A
1

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1. Quasi equilibrium (quasi static) a

reversible process.
The states are plotted by a firm/ solid
line. During a process, the system
passes through a series of only
equilibrium states, so that the system
at any instant is in equilibrium or
infinitesimally close to being in
equilibrium. The system can be
returned to its initial state along the
same path
2. Non-equilibrium process an
irreversible process.
The states cannot be plotted since the
path is not defined. But as the system is
in equilibrium at the end points, it can be
plotted by a dotted line.
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2.2.3

Processes

A reversible process (not the same as a cyclic process) for a system is

defined as a process, once having taken place, can be reversed and in
so doing leaves no change in either system or surroundings.
All real processes are irreversible processes as there are Factors
which prevent the reversal of the process from taking place. These
include:
Friction.
Unrestrained expansion.
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference.
Mixing of two different substances.
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2.2.3

Processes

Properties describe the state of a system only when it is in equilibrium. When

equilibrium do not exist, the states of a system can be described for an ideal or
quasi equilibrium process, i.e. one in which the deviation from thermodynamic
equilibrium is infinitesimal, and all the states through which the system passes in
such a process may be considered as equilibrium states. When a system is not in
equilibrium no properties can be described.
Processes in which one property remains constant:
Isothermal constant temperature.
Isobaric (isopiestic) constant pressure.
Isochoric constant volume.

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2.2.4

Thermodynamic cycle

When a system in a given initial

state goes through a number of

different changes of states or
processes and finally returns to

its initial state, the system

undergoes a cycle. The net
change in any property for any

Two cyclic Processes

cycle is zero.

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m
V

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V
m
V

m V
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2.3.2

Pressure, p

Pressure is defined as the normal force

exerted by a system on a unit area of its
boundary. The pressure may vary from
place to place on the system boundary,
even when the system is in equilibrium.

For example, lets consider a system

consisting of a fluid in a closed tank.

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2.3.2

Pressure, p

For a fluid in static equilibrium

dp (dz ) where is the specific weight

(varies with p and T) of the fluid. The
minus sign indicates elevation z is
measured upwards, i.e. in opposite

direction to the pressure.

For liquids which are only slightly
compressible, can be assumed constant
with respect to pressure so that

dp (z ) g (z )
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A manometer is a simple
instrument that indicates a
pressure difference by balancing a
measurable length of fluid column
against the pressure difference.
Based on, dp (z ) g (z )

A manometer measures pressure

difference between a system and
the atmosphere.

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A barometer measures
atmospheric pressure.

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The pressure is the same at all points of a gas in equilibrium. The SI unit
is the Pascal, Pa, and it is commonly measured in bars. 1 bar = 101325
Pa = 0.1 MPa. A standard atmosphere, 1 atm = 101325 Pa.
Absolute pressure, pabs , is
measured relative to a perfect

P (gauge)

vacuum (0 Pa), and gauge

pressure, pgauge , is measured
relative to the local atmospheric
pressure, patm.
For pressures below atmospheric
pressure, the gauge pressure is
negative and the term vacuum is
applied to the gauge pressure.

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When the absolute pressure is greater than the local atmospheric
pressure:

p abs p atm p gauge

When the absolute pressure is
less than the local atmospheric

P (gauge)

pressure:

pabs patm pvacuum

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2.4

Conservation of mass

Closed System
Since a closed system is defined as a
particular

quantity

of

matter,

the

system always contains the same

matter and no matter crosses the
boundary. Therefore the mass of the
system

is

statement

constant.
of

the

This

is

principle

a
of

conservation of mass for a closed

system.
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2.4

Conservation of mass

Open System
For an open system, matter may cross the
boundary, so the amount of mass within the
system may change. Conservation of mass
requires that:
Rate of increase of mass within the system
= net rate of mass influx across boundary

dm d
d (Vol ) VdA VdA
dt dt
inlets
outlets

V = fluid velocity at system

boundary

This result of the conservation of mass principle is called the

continuity equation.
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2.5

Steady Flow

The flow through an open

system is steady flow if all
properties at each point within
the system remain constant
with respect to time. Property
values vary from one point to
another within a steady flow
system, but at each point they
are constant with time.

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Session 1 Questions

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Example Problem
A wind turbine electric generator is
mounted atop a tower. As wind blows
steadily across the turbine blades,
electricity is generated. The electrical
output of the generator is fed to a storage
battery.
Considering the wind turbine-electric
generator and the storage battery
separately draw the system boundary for
each system and show the thermodynamic
interactions.

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Solution: Storage battery

(b)The principal interaction between the system and its surroundings is the
electric current passing into the battery through the wires. The system is a
closed system. As the battery is charged and chemical reactions occur
within it, the temperature of the battery surface may increase and a thermal
interaction might occur between the battery and the surroundings. This is
represented by the letter Q.

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Engineering Thermodynamics 1
THRM1001
Basic Concepts and Definitions

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