Department of Civil Engineering

EiT-M, Mekelle University

Lecture One
CENG 6601- Hydrodynamics

Lecture 1
Content
Introduction
Fluid Mechanics Applications
Properties of Fluid
Mathematical Preliminaries and Tensor

Analysis
Vector Analysis
Dot product
Cross product

Kinematics
2

Introduction
A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously

under the action of a shearing stress.

A Solid is a substance that resist a shear stress by
static deformation

Fluids:- liquid and gas

3

The study of the motion of

fluids that are practically

incompressible (such as liquids,
especially water, and gases at
low speeds) is usually referred
to as hydrodynamics.
A subcategory of
hydrodynamics is hydraulics,
which deals with liquid flows in

a)global circulation: long-range

weather prediction; analysis of

climate change (global
warming)
b)mesoscale weather patterns;
short-range weather prediction;
tornado and hurricane
warnings; pollutant transport

Fluids in Pure Sciences

2.Oceanography
a)ocean circulation patterns:

causes of El Nino, effects of

ocean currents on weather and
climate
b)effects of pollution on living
organisms

3.Geophysics
a)convection (thermally-driven

fluid motion) in the Earths

mantle: understanding of plate
tectonics, earthquakes,
volcanoes
b)convection in Earths molten

4. Astrophysics

Fluids
in
Pure
Sciences
a)galactic structure and
clustering
b)stellar evolutionfrom
formation by
gravitational collapse
to death as a
supernovae, from
which the basic
elements are
distributed throughout
the universe, all via
fluid motion

5. Biological sciences
6

a)circulatory and respiratory

systems in animals

1. Internal combustion

Fluids in technology

enginesall types of
transportation systems
2. Turbojet, scramjet, rocket
engines aerospace
propulsion systems
3. Waste disposal
a)chemical treatment
b)incineration
c) sewage transport and treatment

4. Pollution dispersal in the

atmosphere (smog); in
rivers and oceans
5. Steam, gas and wind
turbines, and hydroelectric
7
facilities for electric power

(a) crude oil and natural gas

transferral
(b) irrigation facilities
(c) office building and
household plumbing

Contd.

7. Fluid/structure

interaction
(a) design of tall buildings
(b) continental shelf oil-drilling
rigs
(c) dams, bridges, etc.
(d) aircraft and launch vehicle
airframes and control
systems

8. Heating, ventilating

and air conditioning

(HVAC) systems
9. Cooling systems for
high-density
electronic devices
digital computers

Contd.
10.Solar heat and geothermal heat

utilization
11.Artificial hearts, kidney dialysis
machines, insulin pumps
12.Manufacturing processes
(a) spray painting automobiles, trucks, etc.
(b) filling of containers, e.g., cans of soup, cartons
of milk, plastic bottles of soda
(c) operation of various hydraulic devices
(d) chemical vapor deposition, drawing of synthetic
fibers, wires, rods, etc.
9

Continuum Assumption

Microscopic approach: Analyze molecular

structure and associated collisions (e.g.

pressure is due to the net exchange of
momentum at a solid surface)
Macroscopic (continuum) approach: Analyze
bulk behavior of fluid (e.g. pressure is force
exerted by fluid per unit area of solid surface)
While a body of fluid is comprised of molecules,
most characteristics of fluids are due to
average molecular behavior.
That is, a fluid often behaves as if it were
comprised of continuous matter that is infinitely
10 divisible into smaller and smaller parts.

11

Fluid Properties
Fluid properties affect how a fluid reacts to

applied forces, thus the fluids motion

Intensive and extensive properties
Intensive properties: are independent of size or

volume

e.g., density, pressure, temperature

Extensive properties: are dependent of size or

volume and are additive for subsystems.

e.g., mass, volume, area, force

Intensive properties: are obtained from the ratio

of extensive properties.
12

e.g., density=mass/volume, pressure=

Density (mass)
It

is a ratio of the mass of fluid element to

its volume

Density of a fluid affects its flow in two

ways:
It determines the inertia of a unit volume
of fluid thus its
acceleration when subjected to a given
force
for the same force, low density fluids
13

accelerate more readily than high density

fluids

T
Bulk ModulusE ==Coefficient of compressibility
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion B =
For water: E = 2.1 x 109 N/m3
B = 1.53 x 10-4 K-1
Water can be considered incompressible

14

Pressure
Fluids do not support shear stresses
Pressure is (compression) stress at a point

in a static fluid.
Next to velocity , it is the most dynamic
variable in fluid dynamics
Difference in pressure causes a fluid to flow
Atmospheric pressure at m.s.l 101.3 kpa,
will be set to zero for convenience

16

Temperature
Temperature is the measure of

the internal energy of a fluid.

Generally, temperature
differences cause heat transfer.
In this course, we treat
isothermal situation.

17

Viscosity
Viscosity

(also called dynamic viscosity, or

absolute viscosity) is a measure of a fluid's
resistance to deformation under shear
stress.
For example, crude oil has a higher
resistance to shear than does water.
The symbol used to represent viscosity is
(mu) and its unit is (kg/m.s).
It is given by the ratio of the shearing stress
to rate of deformation.
18

Newtonian and Non Newtonian Fluids

Viscosity = Resistance to shear

u

Shear strain angle

19

will grow as f(t)

For fluids such as water, oil, air

t
stress strain rate

However,

u t
tan
y

As , t , y

But
t

0
d du

dt dy

du

dy

dt

For fluids:
"Stress is proportional to
strain rate".
For solids:
"Stress is proportional to
strain" (=E)

Where dynamic viscosity. This is a constitutive

20
relation, which relates forces to material (fluid) properties.

Notes on shear stress

(i) Any shear stress, however small, produces relative
motion.
(ii) If =0, du/dy=0, but 0.
(iii) Velocity profile cannot be tangent to a solid
boundary - This requires an infinite shear stress.
"No-slip" condition: u=0 at solid boundary.
y

21

Types of fluids

Bingham Plastic
Real Plastic
Shear-Thinning Fluid
Newtonian

du / dy

Shear-Thickening Fluid

du
dy

Shear-thinning: Ketchup, whipped cream

Shear-thickening: Corn starch in water

Newtonian fluid: Stress is linearly proportional to strain rate.

22

Units

dU / dy

Dynamic Viscosity

[ ] [ ] [dU / dy ]
ML
M
Force

2 2
2

Area
T
L
LT

[ ]
dU
dy

L 1 1

T L T

M
M
ML
[ ]
T

2
LT
LT
T

e.g.
23

SI:

Ns/m 2 Pa s

Kinematic Viscosity

[v ] [ ] /[ ]
M
LT
M
[] 3
L
M L3 L2
[v ]

LT M
T
[ ]

e.g.
24

SI:

10 4 m 2 / s 1 Stokes

Mathematical preliminaries and tensor analysis

26

Differentiation
If a function is differentiable at a point ,

the derivative value at that point is,

One sided limit

27

Vector Analysis

Right-handed, Cartesian coordinate system

z x3
x
a

a2
a

Unit vectors

y x2

x x1

a1 (1,0,0) i
a 2 (0,1,0) j
a 3 (0,0,1) k

Position vector
28

x a1 x1 a 2 x2 a 3 x3
Where ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) are components of x

Vector: Kundu- Any quantity whose components

change like the components of a position
vector under the rotation of the coord.
system.

x ( x1 x2 x3 )
~

Scalar:

Any quantity that does NOT change with

rotation or translation of the coord. system
e.g. density () or temperature (T)

29

Vector Analysis
Consider vectors and
Dot Product

Cross Product

B
30

The (Del, Gradient, or Grad)

Operator

i
j k
x
y
z

A.The Gradient (Grad) and Directional

Derivatives
i
j
k
x

The
rate of change of a scalar function in an arbitrary direction is
equal to the scalar product of the gradient with the unit vector, , in
that direction.
Since

C1
C2
31

C3

( ) is perpendicular to
C lines and gives magnitude
and direction of maximum spatial
rate of change of

The (Del, Gradient, or Grad)

Operator

B.

Divergence and Divergence

Theorem

Application of to vector quantity

Consider vector
f ffield
i f j f k
x

The dot product of with is called the

divergence

32

f
f y f z
x
f

x y z

In volume terms, the net volume flux out of

the volume dV equals the product of and dV.

Divergence

Theorem (Gauss

Theorem)
Given an arbitrary volume ,

enclosed by the surface , with

outward unitnormal vector
at all

f
dV

n
dS

points onV , the divergence

theorem
S
states
n (outward unit normal vector
~

to surface element)

dA (infinitesimal surface area)

Volume V

33

Surface Area A

dV (infinitesimal volume)

If Q( x) is a scalar, vector, or any order tensor

Q
V x i dV A Q n~ dA

Specifically, if Q( x) is a vector Q
%

or

34

Qi
dV Qi ni dA
A
xi

QdV Q n dA
A
%
%~

Divergence Theorem: Integral over volume of divergence

of flux = integral over surface of the flux itself

Examples (a)

q dV q n dA
A
%
%~

T dV T n dA

(b)

(c) If a scalar is (advectively) transported

by the velocity U
~

~ adv

U F
~

i
adv

( U i )

i
Fadv
V xi dV A F~ adv n~ dA

or

F
V

~ adv

dV F n dA
A ~

Divergence of flux within volume = Net flux across

35


C.

Curl and Stokes Theorem

The cross product of with the

vector is called the curl

i

f
x
fx

y
fy

k
f z f y f x f z f y f x
i
k

j
z y z
z x
x y
fz

The integral of around the contour

enclosing equals the component of in

the direction normal to multiplied by
36

Stokes Theorem
Let S be a two-dimensional surface

enclosedby
C,
then

ndS f dx

n
~

dA

( u ) n dA u ds
C ~
~
~
%

A (open surface)

ds

C (bounding curve)

Surface integral of the curl of a vector, U , equals

~

37

the line integral of U along the bounding curve

~

The Laplacian
Divergence of a gradient for scalar

Describes the net flux of the scalar

quantity into volume

38

Tensors and Index Notation

Some ways of multiplying scalars or vectors

result in tensor
Scalar is a tensor of rank (order zero)
Vector is a tensor of order one
If order is not specified, a tensor implies of
order two
Order of tensor specifies the number of
indices to describe it

39

Tensor: Assigns a vector to each direction in space ( 2nd

order)
e.g.

A11 A12 A13

A A21 A22 A23 Aij

%
% A

31 A32 A33
Rows

Columns

(a) Isotropic Components are unchanged by a rotation of

frame of reference (i.e. independent of direction - e.g.
Kronecker Delta ij)
(b) Symmetric :

Aij = Aji (in general Aij = ATji)

(c) Anti-symmetric: Aij = -Aji

(d) Useful result:
40

Aij = 1/2 (Aij+Aij)+1/2 (Aji-Aji)

= 1/2 (Aij+Aji)+1/2 (Aij-Aji)

Einstein summation convention

A) If an index occurs twice in a term a summation over the
repeated index is implied
e.g. U ii U11 U 22 U 33
U i / X i

U1 U 2 U 3

X 1 X 2 X 3

* Result is a scalar quantity

occurs over a repeated index

41

When a summation
contraction

B) Higher-order tensors can be formed by multiplying

lower order tensors:
a) If Ui and Vj are 1st-order tensors then their product
Ui Vj = Wij is a 2nd-order
Also known as
tensor.

vector outer product U

( V ).
b) If Aij and Bkl are 2nd-order tensors then their product
Aij Bkl = Pijkl is a 4th-order tensor.

C) Lower-order tensors are obtained from contractions

(a) Contraction of two 2nd-order tensors

A B B A B A
ij

kl

ki

ij

kj

(b) Tensor multiplied by a vector

A u j A u
ij

~ i

(c) Double-contraction of two 2nd-order tensors

A B C
ij

42

ji

B: AC

D) Kronecker delta

ij

1 0 0

0 1 0

0 0 1

Isotropic tensor of 2nd order

ijU j U i
Expand:

l1U1 l 2U 2 l 3U 3 RHS

If
43

l 1

RHS U1

l 3

RHS U 3

E) Alternating tensor, Permutation tensor

(a)

An index moved 2 places to right / left wont change value

ijk jki
(b)

ijk

or

kij ijk

An index moved 1 place to right / left will change sign

ijk ikj
(c) Epsilon
Delta
Relation

ijk klm il jm im jl
44

FLOI = first(il)last (jm) - outer(im)inner(jl)

Basic vector operations in Tensor Notation

A) Dot Product (Inner Product) of two vectors

B) Cross Product of two vectors

C) Gradient increases Tensor order
Uj
U
% xi
D) Divergence reduces Tensor order
Ui U1 U2 U3
divU U

~
~
xi x1 x2 x3

45

e.g.

U x

U ij

[ Vector ]

[ Scalar ]

C) Curl
curl U U
~

e.g.

U ijk

i=1:

U k
i
~
x j

If j=1 or k=1

ijk 0

U 3
U 2 U 3 U 2
1 123
132

x 2
x 3 x 2 x 3

46

Important div/grad/curl identities

a b 0 a b

(a)

~ ~

U 0

If

U
~

Solenoidal

a b 0 a// b

(b)

U 0

If

// U

Irrotational

(c) If

is a scalar
ijk

Now
If

47

x j

( ) 0

x
k

2
2

x j xk xk x j

But ijk ikj

i 1

j 2 or 3 , k 3 or 2
2
2
123
132
0
x2 x3
x3x2
-1
+1

 ( U ) 0

(d)

xi

(e)

Curl of a vector is non divergent

ijk

U k
x j

ijk

2U k
0
xi x j

(see above)

a ( a ) ( aa 2) a a
~

a b

Let

~ ~

a b
~

~ i

ijk a j bk

bk a

And

~ k

klm

a a ijk klm a j
~

But:
48

am
xl

ijk klm il jm im jl

am
xl

a a il jm a j
~

1 if

am
a
im jl a j m
xl
xl

il

1 if

1 if

im

jm

am
am
xi

ai
aj
x j

1 if
j l

( a) j

(am am / 2) a j ( a ) j
~
xi

a a

~ ~

49

a a
~

Velocity Gradient Tensor

Laplacian Velocity

50

If Q( x) is a scalar, vector, or any order tensor

Q
V x i dV A Q n~ dA

Specifically, if Q( x) is a vector Q
%

or

51

Qi
dV Qi ni dA
A
xi

QdV Q n dA
A
%
%~

Divergence Theorem: Integral over volume of divergence

of flux = integral over surface of the flux itself

Chain Rule (differentiation)

If and , to find , differential of u

taking the limits

If but
1. When

then when

52

Chain Rule
2. Conversely, when

then when t

But

53

Curvilinear Coordinates

Most common curvilinear coordinates are Cylindrical and

Spherical
Cylindrical Coordinates

Chain
Rule

54

Cylindrical:

55

Spherical coordinate

56

Spherical

57

Kinematics
Studies fluid motion without concern
for the force causing the flow

58

Definition
It is defined as the science that deals

with the study of motion without making

reference to the forces that cause
motion.
It is essential for:
The development of a quantitative theory of

Fluid Mechanics.
The interpretation of data obtaining using
various visualisation experimental methods

59

Velocity Field

physical quantity associated with every point in in

Field:

space-time continuously defined in the region.

The velocity at point C is obtained by taking the average
velocity of the molecules in V*
The velocity field at any point can be defined like wise
leading to Velocity Field U.
U is continuous function of space and time, i.e. U(x,y,z)
U is a vector function. At any point (x,y,z) at any instant
time (t) it has three component, u, v, w.
u(x,y,z,t)- along x-direction
v(x,y,z,t)- along y-direction
W(x,y,z,t)- along z direction

60

Flow Visualizations
If the flow field (velocity) is known either by

solving the motion equations or measuring it

lab/field, the flow field can be displayed using
pathlines, streaklines, streamlines.
Pathlines
A path that a fluid particle traces over time.

61

The position of a fluid particle is given by three

numbers (x, y, z). The position is related to the

instantaneous velocity
by

Given the velocity field, the successive positions (x1,

y1, z1) of a fluid particle from its initial position (x0, y0,

; and
z0) can be determined

Pathlines are generated experimentally

Streaklines
A line that connects at some instant of time

all particles that have gone through a fixed

position or point.
Streaklines are generated experimentally. A
dye is injected continously at a chosen
point

62

Streamline
It is a line in a flow field that is everywhere

tangent to the velocity vector U at each

point along the streamline for any instant of
Velocity is tangent to ds
time t.
hence parallel
No flux

U (u , v, w)

By definition: (i)

U ds 0
~

ds (dx, dy, dz )

ds

( wdy vdz) a (udz wdx) a

~

(vdx udy ) a 0 a 0 a 0 a
~

wdy vdz; udz wdx; vdx udy

dx dy dz

u
v
w
Streamlines display a snapshot of the entire
63

flow field at a single instant in time,

Streamtube
Streamlines never intersect each other

because, at any point, there can be only

one direction of the velocity.
A streamtube is a surface in the flow
formed from streamlines and closed upon
itself to form a tube of variable crosssection.

64

Particle paths and streamlines are not in

general coincident. But,

Steady Flow: streamlines, pathlines and

streaklines coincide
Pathline: (x)
Arc length along the pathline is

Differential equation for path lines and streamlines

are the same

Unsteady flow which direction doesnot

change with time

65

Example 1: Stagnation point flow

2
1.5
1
0.5
x2

x3 0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5

66

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0
x1

0.5

u1 x1 u3 x3

1.5

2.5

Stagnation-point velocity field:

u1 a t x1

u3 a t x3

(a) Calculate streamlines

dx3 u3 a t x3
x3
dx1 dx3

u1
u3
dx1 u1
a t x1
x1
dx3
x
3 (an ode in x3 and x1 )
dx1
x1
or...
dx3
dx3
dx1 dx3
dx1
dx1

u1
u3
ax1 ax3
ax1
ax3

a ln x1 a ln x3 a ln C

67

Cleverly chosen
integration constant

C
x1 x1 x3 C streamlines are hyperbolae
x3

Stagnation pt flow with a=1

10
8
6
4

x3

2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-10
68

-5

0
x1

10

(b) Calculate pathlines

dx1
dx1
u1 ax1
adt which can be integrated
dt
x1
x1 ( t )

t
x1 (t )
dx1
adt ln
at or x1 (t ) x1 (0) exp at

x1 0
x1 (0)
x1 (0)
dx3
By a similar argument using
u3 , we find that
dt
x3 (t ) x3 (0) exp at

But, despite all, x1 x3 x1 (0) x3 (0) C '

pathlines are (also) hyperbolae

69

Example 2: a (more complicated) velocity field: in a surface gravity wave:

Velocity vectors

-1

-1

-2

-2
0

10

Pathline

-1

-1

-2

-2

70

10

10

10

Streakline

Streamlines

Stream/streak/path lines are completely different.

71

Definitions, conventions & concepts

Motion of fluid is typically described by velocity V

V V ( x, y , z , t )
% %
Dimensionality

Steady or Unsteady

Given above there are two frames of reference for describing

this motion
Lagrangian (Material)
moving reference frame

Pathline
Focus on behavior of particular
particles as they move with the
flow
72

Eulerian (Spatial)
stationary reference frame
Focus on behavior of group of
particles at a particular point

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

v
Steady flow

Streamlines

v
v

Individual particles must travel on paths whose tangent is

always in direction of the fluid velocity at the point.

80

In steady flows, (Lagrangian) path lines are the same as

(Eulerian) streamlines.

Langrangian to Eulerian
Transformation
The transformation can be done with
1. The Material or Substantial derivative

operator
2. The Reynolds Transport Theorem

81

Material
Derivative (Substantial or Particle)
Consider a fluid property or a field variable
;
( x, y, z , t ) x~ ( x, y , z )

As particle moves distance d x in time dt (total derivative)

~

d
dt
dxi
-- (1)
t
xi
Dividing all side by dt, the total derivatives becomes

dxi

dt
t
xi dt

If increments are associated with following a specific particle

whose velocity components are such that

dxi
ui
dt

-- (2)

Substitute (2) (1)

d

ui
dt
t
xi
82

Local rate of change

at a point x

Advective change
past x

-- (3)

Material Derivatives
In
vector notation
d

V .
dt
t

Some author use the symbol to distinguish the

Eulerian time rate change from the Lagrangian

one
This derivative is usually called the material or

substantial derivative
If the field variable is Velocity, the acceleration

in Eulerian
frame
83

Convective Acceleration
Local or temporal acceleration

The Reynolds Transport

Theorem
Consider a control volume of volume at

time t, due to motion the volume moves

and deforms in interval dt taking a new
shape

84

Find relationship between the rate

of change of a volume integral
over a moving system consisting of
particular fluid elements, and
operators involving an integral
over a fixed volume in space
(Langrangian
frame in terms of

Euleria frame)
If
If , rate of change of
momentum
Useful in deriving equations of fluid
mechanics

Since Vs(t) is a function of time, definition of

derivative will be used

Add and subtract

Right hand side becomes

85

As ,

Contd.
Also

However,
Thus, volume integral is converted to surface integral

Symilarly,

devidign by and taking the limit,

Using Gauss
Theorem
Thus,
86

Reynolds Transport Theore

Relative Motion near a Point

(1) Basic Motions
(a) Translation
X2

X2

t0

X1

t1

X1

(b) Rotation
X2

No change in dimensions
of control volume
87

t1

X1

(c) Straining (need for stress):

Linear (Dilatation) Volumetric Expansion/Contraction
X2

X2

t0

(d) Angular Straining

X1

t1

X1

No volume change

X2

t1

88

X1

Note: All motion except pure translation involves

relative motion of points in a fluid

General motion of two points:

x2

u du
~

P
x x
~

x2

'

t0

x1

t1

x1

Consider two such points in a flow, O with velocity u ( x, t0 )

~ ~
And P with velocity {u~ d u~ }( x~ ~x, t0 ) moving to O and P
respectively in time t
89

Therefore, after time t

O x~ u~ ( x~ , t0 )t
:

O() means order of =

proportional to

( x x) u ( x x, t0 )t
~

P:

( x x) {u ( x, t0 ) x u O(|| x || 2 )}t
~
~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Taylor series expansion of u~ ( x~ ~x, t0 )

x ( x x) u ( x, t0 )t x u t O (|| x || 2 )t x u ( x, t0 )t
'

~ ~

x x x u t to first order
~
~
~
~
'

ui
Change in separation x x x u t x j
t
~
~
~
~
x j
'

90

-- (A)

Relative motion of two points depends on the velocity

u
gradient, i , a 2nd-order tensor.
x j

(2) Decomposition of Motion

Any tensor can be represented as the sum of a symmetric
part and an anti-symmetric part
ui 1 ui u j 1 ui u j

x j 2 x j xi 2 x j xi

eij rij
={ rate of strain tensor} + {rate of rotation tensor}

1
eij
2

91

u
2 1
x1
u2 u1

x1 x2
u3 u1

x1 x3

u1 u2

x2 x1
u
2 2
x2
u3 u2

x2 x3

u1 u3

x3 x1
u2 u3

x3 x2
u3
2
x3

Linear & angular straining

Note:
(i) Symmetry about
diagonal
(ii) 6 unique terms

rij

1 u 2 u1

2 x1 x2
u u
3

1
x1 x3

u1 u 2

x2 x1
0
u3 u2

x2 x3

u1 u3

x3 x1
u 2 u3

x3 x2
0

Note:
(i) Anti-symmetry about
diagonal
(ii) 3 unique terms (r12, r13, r23)

Rotation
Terms in rij 12 ijk ( u~ ) k 12 ijk k
0
1
rij 3
2
2
92

3
0
1

2
1
0

e.g.

r12 12 1233 12 3
r32 12 3211 12 (1 ) 12 1

Lets check this assertion about rij

ijk k ijk klm
jik klm

um
xl

um
xl

im jl il jm
ui u j

x j xi
2rij

93

um
xl

The recipe:
(a) m = i and l =j
(b) l = i and m = j
gives

Interpretation

x ' x x j
~

ui
t
x j

'

ui

x x
~

x j

ui
x j

ui x j (eij rij )
1
eij x j ijk k x j
2
1
eij x j ikj k x j
2
1
ui eij x j ( x)i
2 ~ %

Relative velocity due

to deformation of
fluid element
94

Relative velocity due

to
rotation
of

element at rate
1/2

(3) Types of motion and deformation

(i) Pure Translation

u1t

X2

x 2

t1

x1
u2t

t1 t0 t

x2

t0

x1

X1

(ii) Linear Deformation - Dilatation

x1'

X2

a
x2

t1

t0

x1
95

t1 t0 t

b
X1

u2
a
x2t
x2
u1
b
x1t
x1

In 2D - Original area at t0 x1x2

- New
area at t1 x 'x ' (x a )(x b)
1
2
1
2
x1 x2 (x1x2
'

'

u1
u
x1tx2 2 x2tx1 O(t ) 2 ...)
x1
x2

u1 u2
x1x2 [(1 (

)t ) O(t 2 )]
x1 x2
'
'
Area Strain
x1 x2 x1x2
Area Strain =
and Strain Rate =
t
x1x2

1 dA
1 A
lim
A0 dt t 0 A0 t

and

1 A u1 u2
O(t )

A0 t x1 x2

1 dA u1 u2

A0 dt x1 x2
96

In 3D
1 dV u1 u2 u3
u

u i
~
V0 dt x1 x2 x3
xi

* Diagonal terms of eij are responsible for dilatation

r
r
In incompressible flow, U 0 ( U is the velocity)

Thus (for incompressible flows),

(a) in 2D, areas are preserved
(b) in 3D, volumes are preserved

97

(iii) Shear Strain Angular Deformation

x2
u1
u1
x2
x2

t1 t0 t
A
X2

x 2 t0

u1

u2

98

u1
x2t
x2

x1

x1

u2
u2
x1
x1

A
d

t1
d B

X1

u 2
x1t
x1

Shear Strain Rate

Iff d , d small

Rate of decrease of the angle formed by 2

mutually perpendicular lines on an element

d d 1 1 u1
1 u2

(
x2t )
(
x1t )
t
t x2 x2
x1 x1

u1 u2

x2 x1

Average Strain Rate

1 u1 u2

eij
2 x2 x1

i j

The off diagonal terms of eij are responsible for angular

strain.
99

(iv) Rotation
x2

(u1

u1
x2 )
x2

u1

O
u2

100

t1 t0 t

A
x2

t0

x1

u1
x2t
x2

B
u2

x1
u2
x1
x1

t1

d
O

B
u2
x1t
x1

u 2
Rotation due to
:
x1

due to u1
x2

u 2
1 u 2
d
t
x1t

x1 x1 x1

u1
1
d
t
x2 x2

u1

x2t

x2

Average Rotation Rate (due to superposition of 2 motions)

1 d d

2
t

101

1 u 2 u1
rij

2 x1 x2

i j

Summary

ui
u
1. Relative motion near a point is caused by
~
x j

2. This tensor can be decomposed into a symmetric and

an anti-symmetric part.
(a) Symmetric
* eij : Dilation of a fluid volume u~
* i j : Angular straining or shear straining
(b) Anti-symmetric
*i j : 0
* rij : Rotation of an element

i j
i j
102

Conservation Laws

103

Conservation Laws
Conservation laws describe the conservation of

certain quantities and are based on fundamental

physical laws.
When taken together, they establish relations
between the various parameters / quantities of the
system
Velocity,
Pressure,
Density,

The commonest conserved quantities are

Mass
Momentum,
energy
104

Mass of object: m dV
V

Momentum of object: P~ u dV
V

The Law of Conservation of

Mass
Within some problem domain defined by a

control volume, the net mass of fluid

passing from outside to inside through the
control surfaces equals the net increase of
mass in the control volume.
In its most general form: the law stat that
mass is neither created not destroyed in
a closed system

105

The Law of the Conservation of

Momentum

Momentum
is one description of the state of

motion of a system of masses.

The physical system responsible for the
transformation of the state of motion of a mass
system from the initial state to the final state is
effected by a system of FORCES acting over TIME

106

The Law of the Conservation of

Energy
Energy is another description of the state

of motion of a system of masses.

The physical system responsible for the
transformation of the state of motion of the
mass system from the initial state to the
final state is effected by a system of
FORCES acting over DISTANCES

107

Methods of Analysis
Fluid flow problems can be analyzed in one

of the three approaches:

Control volume of integral approach
Infinitesimal or differential approach
Experimental approach

In fluid dynamics system

A quantity of matter or a finite region in

space is choosen for study

Control Volume / open system
Control mass /closed system/ system

108

Control volume or integral approach

A control volume (CV) is an arbitrary finite

volume of an arbitrary shape that is chosen from

a fluid region for analysis. The boundaries of a
control volume are referred as control surfaces
(CS).

A control volume is an open system

mass and energy enter and leave the control

109

volume through the control surfaces.

A control volume is fixed in space

Control Mass / Closed System/

System
A quantity of matter of fixed identity is

chosen for a study

i.e., fixed mass of fluid
In a closed system, mass is not allowed to
enter or leave.
Unlike a control volume, a control mass
moves with the fluid since we are dealing
with the same fluid elements (mass)

110

From System (Control mass) to

Control Volume

Initially at t = 0, the system and control

volume coincide:

The rate of change of mass in the system

between t = to ant to + t:

111

Infinitesimal or differential
formulation

Control
volume / Integral formulations are useful

when we are interested in the gross behavior of a

flow field and its effect on devices.
It does not provide a detailed (i.e., point by point)
knowledge of the flow field.
To obtain this detailed knowledge, we must
formulate the conservation equations in
differential forms.
The analysis will be in terms of infinitesimal
system.
Recall that the fluid properties are continuous in
both spatial coordinates and time,
112

Experimental Approach
Analytical solutions exists for simple cases
Simple geometry
Simple initial and boundary conditions

A need for experimental and laboratory

based approaches
Full and model scales
Dimensional Analysis and similarity

113

Stress Field
A fluid subjected to two types of forces
Surface forces, and
Body forces

1. Surface forces
Forces that are acting on the surfaces or boundaries of a

fluid element/ control volume through direct contact,

A force per unit surface area is STRESS.
The concept of stress provides a convenient means to
describe the manner in which forces are acting on the
boundaries of the medium are transmitted through the
medium.
Stress developed depends
position of the molecules on the surface
the average relative motion of the molecules

114

Two types of stresses

Pressure (P)
Viscous stress
When a fluid has no motion, the only stress is the

first kind. This stress component is normal to the

surface.
When
the fluid moves, there will be a viscous
2. Body
forces
stress.
Body
forces are all forces that are
developed with out physical contact
with the fluid element, and are
distributed through out the element.
e.g.,

gravitational forces

The magnitude and direction of the

gravity force is given by the product

of the mass of the fluid element
times the local acceleration due to
gravity.
115

Stresses at a point
Is specified by 9 components

Where are called normal stresses

the rest is called shear stresses

116

Equation of Motion
Viscid Flow (Navier-Stokes Equation)

.. Continuity eqaution

Independent variable: x, y, z, t
Dependent variables: u, v, w velocity in x, y, z
, P density, pressure
. viscosity
117

Equation of Motion
inviscid Flow (Euler Equation)

=0
=
0 =
0

Independent variable: x, y, z, t
Dependent variables: u, v, w velocity in x, y, z
, P density, pressure
. viscosity
118

Types of fluid Flow

1. Real and Ideal Flow:
If the fluid is considered frictionless with zero viscosity it is called
ideal.
In real fluids the viscosity is considered and shear stresses occur
causing conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy

Ideal

119

Friction = 0
Ideal Flow (
=0)
Energy loss =0

Real
Friction = o
Real Flow ( 0)
Energy loss = 0

2. Steady and Unsteady Flow

Steady flow occurs when conditions of a point in a flow
field dont change with respect to time ( v, p,
H..changes w.r.t. time

0
steady
t

unsteady
0
t
H=constant

H
constant

V=constant

Steady Flow with respect to

time
Velocity is constant at certain
120position w.r.t. time

V constant

Unsteady Flow with respect to

time
Velocity changes at certain
position

Uniform and Non uniform Flow

Y

Uniform Flow means

that the velocity is
constant at certain time
in different positions
(doesnt depend on any

dimension x or y or z(
0
x

0
x
121

Non- uniform Flow means

velocity changes at
certain time in different
positions ( depends on
dimension
x or yuniform
or z(
Non-uniform

4. Flow dimensionality
Generally, flow is 3-dimensional
Fluid properties vary in three directions
The most complete description is given by three dimensional

analysis
Under some conditions, flow field can be reduced to 2-d or 1-

d
The relative variation of the fluid properties with the directions

may vary

mensionality;
(a) 1-D flow between horizontal plates, (b) 2-D flow in a 3-D
122
) 3-D flow in a 3-D box. (source: Lecture in Elementary Fluid Mechanics J. M. McD

4. Flow Dimensionality
(cont.)
A flow field is best characterized by its velocity

distribution.
A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional
if the flow velocity varies in one, two, or three
dimensions, respectively.
However, the variation of velocity in certain
directions can be small relative to the variation in
other directions and can be ignored.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V =

V(r, z) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance
region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when the
123
velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the
flow direction, V = V(r).

Laminar and Turbulent Flow:

In Laminar Flow:
Fluid flows in separate
layers
No mass mixing between
fluid layers
Friction mainly between
fluid layers
Reynolds Number (RN ) <
2000
Vmax.= 2Vmean

Vmean
124

Vmax

In Turbulent Flow:
No separate layers
Continuous mass mixing
Friction mainly between
fluid and pipe walls
Reynolds Number (RN ) >
4000
Vmax.= 1.2 Vmean

Vmean
Vmax

Laminar and Turbulent Flow (cont.):

125

6.Rotational
and
irrotational
A rotational flow is one in which fluid elements
flows
moving in the flow field will undergo rotation. The
r

rotation is given by the angular velocity of any

two mutually perpendicular line elements of the
element Mathematically, this is given by curl u
0.

126

rotational flow

Irrotational flow

127

Types of motion or deformation of

fluid element
Linear translation

Rotational translation
Linear deformation

angular deformation

128

Plane flow
A flow is said to be plane or two-dimensional if it is everywhere
orthogonal to one direction and independent of translations
along such direction.
In a plane flow it is therefore possible to choose a system of
Cartesian coordinates (x1, x2, x3) so that u has the form u = (u1,
u2, 0), and u1 and u2 do not depend on x3.

Axisymmetric flow
A flow is said to be axisymmetric if, chosen a proper system of
cylindrical coordinates (z, r , ) the velocity u = (uz , ur , u') is
independent of the azimuthal coordinate , and u' = 0.

129