Documenti di Didattica
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prepared by
Janice Meeking,
Mount Royal College
C H AP T E R
Chemistry
Comes Alive:
Part A
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Matter
States of matter:
1. Soliddefinite shape and volume
2. Liquiddefinite volume, changeable shape
3. Gaschangeable shape and volume
Energy
Capacity to do work or put matter into motion
Types of energy:
Kineticenergy in action
Potentialstored (inactive) energy
PLAY
Forms of Energy
Chemical energystored in bonds of
chemical substances
Electrical energyresults from movement of
charged particles
Mechanical energydirectly involved in
moving matter
Radiant or electromagnetic energyexhibits
wavelike properties (i.e., visible light,
ultraviolet light, and X-rays)
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Composition of Matter
Elements
Cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means
Each has unique properties:
Physical properties
Are detectable with our senses, or are
measurable
Chemical properties
How atoms interact (bond) with one another
Composition of Matter
Atoms
Unique building blocks for each element
Atomic Structure
Determined by numbers of subatomic
particles
Nucleus consists of neutrons and protons
Atomic Structure
Neutrons
No charge
Mass = 1 atomic mass unit (amu)
Protons
Positive charge
Mass = 1 amu
Atomic Structure
Electrons
Orbit nucleus
Equal in number to protons in atom
Negative charge
1/2000 the mass of a proton (0 amu)
Nucleus
Nucleus
Helium atom
Helium atom
2 protons (p+)
2 neutrons (n0)
2 electrons (e)
2 protons (p+)
2 neutrons (n0)
2 electrons (e)
Neutron
Electron
cloud
Figure 2.1
Identifying Elements
Atoms of different elements contain different
numbers of subatomic particles
Compare hydrogen, helium and lithium (next
slide)
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Hydrogen (H)
(1p+; 0n0; 1e)
Helium (He)
(2p+; 2n0; 2e)
Lithium (Li)
(3p+; 4n0; 3e)
Figure 2.2
Identifying Elements
Atomic number = number of protons in
nucleus
Identifying Elements
Mass number = mass of the protons and
neutrons
Mass numbers of atoms of an element are not
all identical
Isotopes are structural variations of elements
that differ in the number of neutrons they
contain
Identifying Elements
Atomic weight = average of mass numbers of
all isotopes
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Hydrogen (1H)
(1p+; 0n0; 1e)
Deuterium (2H)
(1p+; 1n0; 1e)
Tritium (3H)
(1p+; 2n0; 1e)
Figure 2.3
Radioisotopes
Spontaneous decay (radioactivity)
Similar chemistry to stable isotopes
Can be detected with scanners
Radioisotopes
Valuable tools for biological research and
medicine
Cause damage to living tissue:
Useful against localized cancers
Radon from uranium decay causes lung
cancer
Mixtures
Most matter exists as mixtures
Two or more components physically intermixed
Solutions
Homogeneous mixtures
Usually transparent, e.g., atmospheric air or
seawater
Solvent
Present in greatest amount, usually a liquid
Solute(s)
Present in smaller amounts
Concentration of Solutions
Expressed as
Percent, or parts per 100 parts
Milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl)
Molarity, or moles per liter (M)
1 mole = the atomic weight of an element or
molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) of
a compound in grams
1 mole of any substance contains 6.02
1023 molecules (Avogadros number)
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Suspensions:
Heterogeneous mixtures, e.g., blood
Large visible solutes tend to settle out
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Solution
Colloid
Suspension
Solute
particles
Solute
particles
Example
Mineral water
Example
Gelatin
Solute
particles
Example
Blood
Figure 2.4
Compounds
Can be separated only by breaking bonds
All are homogeneous
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Chemical Bonds
Electrons occupy up to seven electron shells
(energy levels) around nucleus
Octet rule: Except for the first shell which is
full with two electrons, atoms interact in a
manner to have eight electrons in their
outermost energy level (valence shell)
(a)
2e
Helium (He)
(2p+; 2n0; 2e)
2e
8e
Neon (Ne)
(10p+; 10n0; 10e)
Figure 2.5a
(b)
Hydrogen (H)
(1p+; 0n0; 1e)
6e
2e
Oxygen (O)
(8p+; 8n0; 8e)
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4e
2e
Carbon (C)
(6p+; 6n0; 6e)
1e
8e
2e
Sodium (Na)
(11p+; 12n0; 11e)
Figure 2.5b
Ionic Bonds
Ions are formed by transfer of valence shell
electrons between atoms
Anions ( charge) have gained one or more
electrons
Cations (+ charge) have lost one or more
electrons
Figure 2.6a-b
CI
Na+
Figure 2.6c
Covalent Bonds
Formed by sharing of two or more valence
shell electrons
Allows each atom to fill its valence shell at
least part of the time
Reacting atoms
Resulting molecules
Molecule of
Hydrogen
Carbon
methane gas (CH4)
atoms
atom
(a) Formation of four single covalent bonds:
carbon shares four electron pairs with four
hydrogen atoms.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
or
Structural
formula
shows
single
bonds.
Figure 2.7a
Reacting atoms
Resulting molecules
+
Oxygen
atom
or
Oxygen
atom
Molecule of
oxygen gas (O2)
Structural
formula
shows
double
bond.
Figure 2.7b
Reacting atoms
Resulting molecules
+
Nitrogen
atom
or
Nitrogen
atom
Molecule of
nitrogen gas (N2)
Structural
formula
shows
triple
bond.
Figure 2.7c
Covalent Bonds
Sharing of electrons may be equal or unequal
Equal sharing produces electrically balanced
nonpolar molecules
CO2
Figure 2.8a
Covalent Bonds
Unequal sharing by atoms with different
electron-attracting abilities produces polar
molecules
H2O
Atoms with six or seven valence shell
electrons are electronegative, e.g., oxygen
Atoms with one or two valence shell
electrons are electropositive, e.g., sodium
Figure 2.8b
Figure 2.9
Hydrogen Bonds
Attractive force between electropositive
hydrogen of one molecule and an
electronegative atom of another molecule
Common between dipoles such as water
Also act as intramolecular bonds, holding a
large molecule in a three-dimensional shape
PLAY
Hydrogen bond
(indicated by
dotted line)
+
+
Figure 2.10a
Figure 2.10b
Chemical Reactions
Occur when chemical bonds are formed,
rearranged, or broken
Represented as chemical equations
Chemical equations contain:
Molecular formula for each reactant and
product
Relative amounts of reactants and products,
which should balance
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(product)
4H + C CH4 (methane)
Synthesis Reactions
A + B AB
Always involve bond formation
Anabolic
Protein
molecule
Figure 2.11a
Decomposition Reactions
AB A + B
Reverse synthesis reactions
Involve breaking of bonds
Catabolic
Glucose
molecules
Figure 2.11b
Exchange Reactions
AB + C AC + B
Also called displacement reactions
Bonds are both made and broken
+
Glucose
+
Glucose
phosphate
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Chemical Reactions
All chemical reactions are either exergonic or
endergonic
Exergonic reactionsrelease energy
Catabolic reactions
Endergonic reactionsproducts contain more
potential energy than did reactants
Anabolic reactions
Chemical Reactions
All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible
A + B AB
AB A + B