Second Language

Acquisition:
Individual Differences
Amy Courtney
Kiera Black
Molly Baskin
Brian ODonnell
Nihed Medbou

Motivation As A Factor of Second Language Acquisition

Nihed Medbou

Introduction
Works/theories supporting this:
Gardeners Socio-Educational
Model

What is motivation?

Motivation has been defined as the learners

orientation with regard to the goal of learning a
second language
Includes attempt and desire! (Dornyei,1994)
Two types of Motivation: Integrative Motivation,
Instrumental Motivation

Integrative Motivation: Characterized by

the learners positive attitudes towards the
target language group and the desire to
integrate into the target language community.
Instrumental Motivation: Illustrates the
goal to gain some social or economic reward
through L2 achievement. More of a need to
learn rather than a desire.
Examples of Instrumental Motivation
Goals : Applying for a job, requesting higher
pay based on language abilities, achieving
higher social status.
Differences between both types of

 Ultimate goal of both types of

motivation: To acquire the
L2.
Gardeners Model of Motivation:
Composed of three elements; Effort, Desire,
Affect
1) Effort: Time taken to study the language,
drive of the learner.
2) Desire: How much a learner desires to
attain fluency
3) Affect: A learners emotional reactions
with regards to
language study.
(Gardener,1982)

Integrative vs. Instrumental Motivation

Integrative Motivation however,

sustains long-term success
More students select instrumental
reasons than integrative

(Brown, 2000) International

students

An important factor of SLA!

Motivation occurs in two sites:
Formal Site (educational context),
Informal Site (cultural context).
Gardeners Socio-Educational
Model

Conclusion

Language Learning Strategies

Molly Baskin

Definition of a Language:
Wenden and Rubin (1987:19)
Richards and Platt (1992:209)
Faerch Claus and Casper (1983:67)
Stern (1992:261)

Rubins Classification of
Language Learning Strategies

Directly to learning vs. indirectly to learning

Learning Strategies
Communication Strategies
Social Strategies

Cognitive Learning Strategies

Metacognitive Learning Strategies

6 main strategies directly

linked to language learning:
Clarification / Verification
Guessing / Inductive
Inferencing
Deductive Reasoning
Practice
Memorization
Monitoring
Metacognitive Learning
Strategies

Communication strategies

focus is on the process

of participating in a
conversation

Social Strategies
Give learners of an L2
opportunities to practise
their skills in a social
setting
Affective strategies are
concerned with the learner's
emotional requirements
such as confidence, while
social strategies lead to
increased interaction with
the target language

Oxfords Direct/Indirect Strategies (1990)

Memory
Cognitive
Compensation

Metacognitive
Affective
Social

Importance of Language Learning

Good indicator of how a student
approaches problem or task
helps the language learner build up
learner independence
language learning strategies "... are
especially important for language
learning because they are tools for
active, self-directed movement,

Teachers Role in Strategy

Training
How do students react to
second language learning?
The language teacher should
analyse his textbook to see
whether the textbook already
includes language learning
strategies
The language teacher should
also study his own teaching
method and overall classroom
style.

Anxiety and Self-Esteem as a Factor of SLA

Kiera Black

Anxiety as defined by Horwitz

(1986):
Anxiety is the subjective feeling of
tension, apprehension, nervousness,
and worry associated with an arousal
of the
autonomic
nervous
system
Klein:
Developing
a bilingual,
bicultural
identity is a

dynamic, challenging, and sometimes painful process that

continues well into adulthood.

Judith Wolfgang Klein

Judith:

Arrived from
Nicaragua aged 7
English developed
very slowly
Sudden progression
after 3 years
Patience is key

Krashens Five Hypotheses

The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis

The Monitor Hypothesis
The Input Hypothesis
The Natural Order Hypothesis
The Active Filter Hypothesis prevents
students from confidently producing L2

3 Components of Language Learning

Anxiety

(Horwitz et al.
1986)
Communication
Apprehension
Fear of negative
social evaluation
Test apprehension

Studies on Anxiety
Guiora (1972) effects of alcohol
on language learning anxiety
M.L Price (1991) anxious
learners often had bad classroom
experiences
MacIntyre (1996): perfectionist
qualities linked with anxiety

Specific Anxiety Reactions

Anxiety relating to specific areas,
such as language learning, maths or
physics
Going blank in classes, feeling
stressed
Horwitz and Steinberg (1986) these
students offer less personal
information and participate less in
class

Helpful Measures
Appropriate error correction
encouragement!
TEFL course Effective vs. Ineffective
Praise
Suggestopedia! Dr. Georgi
Lozanov
The learner takes in the knowledge
passively
Stress-free and relaxed environment

Age as a Factor of SLA

Amy Courtney

At what AGE is best to

learn a second language?

What is the Critical Period Hypothesis?

Eric Lenneberg claimed optimum age
for SLA was between 2 13
Scientific evidence proved this
hypothesis WRONG
However it still influenced schools to
teach young children a 2nd language

Definition of Critical Period Hypothesis

Ellis (1995) described it as a fixed

span of years during which the
language learning can take place
naturally and effortlessly, and after
which it is not possible to be
completely successful.
Brown (2007) defines it as a
biological timetable during which,

Do young people learn a

second language FASTER
than an adult?

YES! Krashen, Long and

Scarcella (1979) claimed
OLDER children learn L2
faster than YOUNGER
children.
So why do so many
countries include a second
and or third language on
their primary school
curriculum, if secondary
school children starting
during adolescence
perform better ?

Maybe not
Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle
(1978) conducted a study
of acquisition of Dutch by
English speaking:
8-10 year old children
12-15 year old adolescents
Adults
Over a 10 month period
participants proficiency
levels were monitored at 3
different stages

Morphology and Syntax

ADOLESCENTS
ADULTS
CHILDREN

Pronunciation and Grammar

Differences between adults and
children disappeared as the children
eventually caught up!

Can you ever reach the level of a Native

speaker, does age matter?
There are many
arguments over
this, there really is
no right or wrong
answer.

Thompson (1991)
Study on foreign accents of Russian
immigrants in US
Those who arrived in US before age
of 10 = more native like English
accent than those older than 10.
This supporting Critical Period
Hypothesis

WHY?
Cooke and Singleton (2014): what
happens to an immigrants first language
when they move to a new country?
Language Dominance
Children arriving before age of 10 may
change dominant language in their mind
Children arriving after age of 10 may
maintain dominance of their first
language

Patkowski (1980-1990)
Study of 67 immigrants to US,
arriving before and after age of 15.
Those who arrives before age of 15
= more syntactically proficient than
those arriving after age of 15.
Support of Thompson, and support
of Critical Period Hypothesis.

However.
Thompson also found 2 of his
participants who came to the US at the
age of 4 still had a slight accent.
Thompson considered this a problem
for the Critical Period Hypothesis.
Thus moving to a country and starting
the language at a young age, does not
guarantee the ability to become a native
speaker.

As for the adults:

Youre in luck
Studies by Neufelf (1978) show that adults,
under the right circumstances (ex. Strong
motivation, positive attitude, time investment)
can learn a language to a level where it
cannot be distinguished from a native speaker
.
This study weakening the validity of the
Critical Period Hypothesis

Personality as a Factor of SLA

Brian ODonnell

often only supported by observation

or even intuition
Not a huge amount of evidence to
support theories

Extrovert or Introvert
opinion that extravert
person is especially
suited to second
language learning more
so than an introvert
person
Naiman et al. vs.
Richard Tucker et al.
Advantages to
extroversion

High levels of Self Esteem

Risk Taking

References

Guiora, A.Z et al. (1972). The effects of experimentally induced changes in ego states
on pronunciation ability in a second language: An exploratory study. Comprehensive
Psychiatry 13.5, 421428
Horwitz, E. (2010). Foreign and Second Language Anxiety. Language Teaching:
Surveys and Studies. 43 (2), 154-167
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety.
The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125-132
Klein, W (1986). Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge
Krashen, S (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. California:
Pergamon Press Inc: Cambridge University Press. 33-40
Lozanova, I. (2001). The Method. Available: http://www.lozanovinternational.com/suggestology-method-en-GB/. Last accessed 11/02/15.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Charos, C. (1996). Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors
of second language communications. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15,
3-26.
Price, M. L. (1991). The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: Interviews
with highly anxiou students. In Horwitz & Young (eds.), 101108.