Physical Properties

WHAT DOES THAT EVEN MEAN?

Electrical Properties
Thermal Properties
Magnetic Properties
Optical Properties

Study this section from the lecture notes .

Chapter 18 - 1

Chapter 18: Electrical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are electrical conductance and resistance
characterized?
What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, T, and deformation?

Chapter 18 - 2

Electrical Conduction
Ohm's Law:

V=IR

voltage drop (volts = J/C)

resistance (Ohms)
current (amps = C/s)
C = Coulomb

Resistivity, :
-- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry

RA

Conductivity,

surface area
of current flow
current flow
path length

Chapter 18 - 3

Electrical Properties

RA

Which will have the greater resistance?

2

R1

2D

R2

2
8

D 2 D2

2

R1

2D 2 D2 8

2

Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

Resistance depends on sample
geometry and
size.
Chapter 18 - 4

Electrical Properties
Which will have the greater resistance?
2

R1

2D

R2

2
8

D 2 D2

2

R1

2D 2 D2 8

2

Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

Resistance depends on sample
geometry and
size.
Chapter 18 - 5

Definitions
Further definitions

J=

<= another way to state Ohms law

J current density

current
I

surface area A

like a flux

electric field intensity = V/ or (V/ )

J=
(V/ )
Electron flux

conductivity

voltage gradient

Current carriers
electrons in most solids (& holes in some semiconductors)
ions can also carry (particularly in liquid solutions)
Chapter 18 - 6

Example: Conductivity Problem

What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that V < 1.5 V?
100 m
I = 2.5 A

Cu wire -

100 m

Solve to get

V=IR

D2
4

A I

RA

< 1.5 V
2.5 A

6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1

D > 1.87 mm
Chapter 18 - 7

Losses in power generation due to

resistivity
Resistance increases with distance
typically 5% - urban locations, up to
10-20% - remote/rural locations.
V
R

A I

Losses can be reduced by transmitting

power with low current and high
voltage limited by air insulation
between power cables on pylons or
cables and earth.
Chapter 18 -

Conductivity: Comparison
Room T values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( - m)-1
METALS
CERAMICS
conductors
-10
Silver
6.8 x 10 7
Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper
6.0 x 10 7
Concrete
10-9
Iron
1.0 x 10 7
Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS
POLYMERS
Polystyrene
Silicon
4 x 10 -4
Polyethylene
Germanium 2 x 10 0
GaAs
10 -6
semiconductors

<10 -14
10 -15-10-17
insulators

Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister 7e.
Chapter 18 - 9

Orbitalelectron

Electronic Structure
Nucleus

10
Chapter 18 -

Electron Configuration
This is Sodium (atomic
#11) in its ground state.
All electrons are in their
lowest energy
configuration
Electron transitions to
higher states are possible.
Number of electrons in
each shell in superscript

Chapter 18 -

Electronic Band Structures

Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister 7e.

Chapter 18 - 12

Band Structure
Valence band filled highest occupied energy levels
Conduction band empty lowest unoccupied energy levels

Chapter 18 - 13

Band Structure
Valence band filled highest occupied energy levels
Conduction band empty lowest unoccupied energy levels

Conduction
band
valence band

Adapted from Fig. 18.3, Callister 7e.

Chapter 18 - 14

Band Structure

Fermi Energy (Ef) Highest filled state at 0K

Electrons with energies > Ef participate in conduction

Metals

Insulators

Semiconductors
Chapter 18 -

Band Structure
Fermi Energy (Ef) Highest filled state at 0K
Only electrons with energies > Ef participate in conduction

Metals i
(like Copper)

Metals ii
(like Magnesium)

Insulators

Semiconductors
Chapter 18 -

Band Structure - Metals

To become free, electrons need to be excited to energy state > Ef
Easy for a metal (no band gap). Thermal excitation at >0o excited
enough electrons

Chapter 18 -

Band Structure
Insulators/Semiconductors

To become free, electrons need to be excited to energy state > E f

More energy required for insulators/semiconductors to overcome band
gap

Chapter 18 -

Band Structures
Energy
empty
band

filled states

Fermi energy Ef
Highest filled
energy at 0K

empty
band
filled
valence
band
filled
band

Metals

filled
valence
band
filled
band

Insulators

Energy
empty
band

GAP <2 eV
filled states

Energy

filled states

GAP >2 eV

filled
valence
band
filled
band

Semiconductors
Chapter 18 -

Metals: Influence of Temperature and

Impurities on Resistivity
Presence of imperfections increases resistivity

(10 -8 Ohm-m)

Resistivity,

-- grain boundaries
-- dislocations
-- impurity atoms
-- vacancies
6
.3
+3

5
4

Cu

r
defo

2
1
0

N
at %

C
d
e
m
d
i
t

-200

These act to scatter

electrons so that they
take a less direct path.

12
.
1
+

Ni
%
t
a

1.1
+
u

i
N
%
2 at

u
C

e
r
Pu

-100

T (C)

Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.8
adapted from J.O. Linde, Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A.
Wert and R.M. Thomson, Physics of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1970.)

Resistivity
increases with:
-- temperature
-- wt% impurity
-- %CW

= thermal
+ impurity
+ deformation
Chapter 18 - 20

Estimating Conductivity
Question:

180
160
140
125
120
100
21 wt%Ni
80
60
0 10 20 30 40 50

Resistivity,
(10 -8 Ohm-m)

Yield strength (MPa)

-- Estimate the electrical conductivity of a Cu-Ni alloy

that has a yield strength of 125 MPa.

wt. %Ni, (Concentration C)

Adapted from Fig. 7.16(b), Callister 7e.

From step 1:
CNi = 21 wt%Ni

Adapted from Fig.

18.9, Callister 7e.

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50

wt. %Ni, (Concentration C)

30 x10 8 Ohm m
1
3.3 x10 6 (Ohm m)1

Chapter 18 - 21

Electrical Characteristics of
Commercial Alloys
Copper is the most commonly used conductor
Aluminium has one-half the conductivity is also used
a lot
Silver has the best conductivity, but is too expensive
Achieving strength and conductivity is a challenge.
Cold working lowers conductivity, as does solid
solution strengthening and precipitation hardening
Chapter 18 -

Ultrahigh Strength and High Electrical

Conductivity in Copper

Science304,422426(2004)
Chapter 18 - 23

Pure Semiconductors: Conductivity vs T

Data for Pure Silicon:
-- increases with T
-- opposite to metals
electrical conductivity,
(Ohm-m) -1

undoped e
Energy
empty
band

GAP
filled states

10 4
10 3
10 2
10 1
10 0

10 -1

pure
(undoped)

10 -2
50 100

1000
T(K)

Adapted from Fig. 19.15, Callister 5e. (Fig. 19.15

adapted from G.L. Pearson and J. Bardeen, Phys. Rev.
75, p. 865, 1949.)

E gap /2 kT

electrons
filled
can cross
valence gap at
band
higher T
filled
band

material
Si
Ge
GaP
CdS

band gap (eV)

1.11
0.67
2.25
III-V
2.40
II-VI
Chapter 18 - 24

Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity application of pressure produces current

at
rest

compression
induces
voltage

applied voltage
induces
expansion
Adapted from Fig. 18.36,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 18 - 25

Summary
Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters
-- geometry independent

Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...

-- differ in range of conductivity values
-- differ in availability of electron excitation states

For metals, resistivity is increased by

-- increasing temperature
-- addition of imperfections
-- plastic deformation

For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by

-- increasing temperature

Other electrical characteristics

-- piezoelectricity
Chapter 18 - 26

Thermal Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do materials respond to the application of heat ?
How do we define and measure...
-- heat capacity?
-- thermal expansion?
-- thermal conductivity?
-- thermal shock resistance?

How do the thermal properties of ceramics, metals,

and polymers differ?
Chapter 18 - 27

Loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia on 1 February 2003

82 seconds after launch a large
piece of foam insulating material
from the external tank broke free and
struck the leading edge of the
shuttle's left wing, damaging the
protective carbon heat shielding
panels. This damage allowed superheated gases to enter the wing
structure during re-entry
into the earth's
atmosphere and
caused the destruction
of the Columbia and the
death of all 7 crew
members
Chapter 18 - 28

Heat Capacity
General: The ability of a material to absorb heat.
Quantitative: The energy required to increase the
temperature of the material.
heat capacity
(J/mol-K)

dQ
C
dT

energy input (J/mol)

temperature change (K)

Specific heat cp (heat capacity per unit mass) has units

J
29
kg K
* C depends upon the size of the object, cp does not
Chapter 18 -

Heat Capacity / Specific Heat

Heat Capacity: ratio of the amount of energy absorbed to the associated
temperature rise.
Example: if it takes 10 joules to raise the temperature of a glass of water
by 2 C, then the heat capacity of the glass of water is 10 joules/2C = 5
joules per C.

dQ
C
dT
Specific Heat: the heat capacity of a substance per unit mass
Example: for water, it takes 1 joule to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water by 1C. So the specific heat for water is 1J/gram C
Chapter 18 - 30

Atomic Vibrations
Atomic vibrations are in the form of lattice waves or phonons

Adapted from Fig. 19.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 18 - 31

Specific Heat: Comparison

increasing cp

Material
Polymers
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
Teflon

cp (J/kg-K)
at room T
1925
cp (specific heat): (J/kg-K)
1850
Cp (heat capacity): (J/mol-K)
1170
1050

Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO)
Alumina (Al2O3)
Glass

940
775
840

Metals
Aluminum
Steel
Tungsten
Gold

900
486
138
128

Selected values from Table 19.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 32

Thermal Expansion
Materials change size when temperature changes
initial
final

Tinitial
Tfinal

Tfinal > Tinitial

final initial
(Tfinal Tinitial )
initial
Linear co-efficient of thermal expansion (CTE)

Chapter 18 - 33

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:

Comparison
Material

increasing

Polymers
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
Teflon

(10-6/C)
at room T
145-180
106-198
90-150
126-216

Metals
Aluminum
Steel
Tungsten
Gold
Invar (Fe 36Ni)

23.6
12
4.5
14.2
1.6

Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO)
Alumina (Al2O3)
Soda-lime glass
Silica (cryst. SiO2)

13.5
7.6
9
0.4

Selected values from Table 19.1, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Ionisation gauges made with pyrex

and low expanson metal (Kovar)

Chapter 18 - 34

Thermal Expansion: Example

Ex: A copper wire 15 m long is cooled from
40 to -9C. How much change in length will it
experience?
Answer: For Cu
16.5 x 106 ( C)1

final initial
(Tfinal Tinitial )
initial
rearranging

0 T [16.5 x 10 6 (1/ C)](15 m)[ 40C ( 9C)]

0.012 m 12 mm

Chapter 18 - 35

Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a material to transport heat.
Fouriers Law

heat flux
(J/m2-s)

dT
q k
dx

temperature
gradient

thermal conductivity (J/m-K-s)

T2

T1
x1

heat flux

x2

T2 > T1

Atomic perspective: Atomic vibrations and free electrons in

hotter regions transport energy to cooler regions.

Chapter 18 - 36

Thermal Conductivity: Comparison

Material
Metals
Aluminum
Steel
Tungsten
Gold

k (W/m-K)

Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO)
Alumina (Al2O3)
Soda-lime glass
Silica (cryst. SiO2)
Polymers
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
Teflon

Energy Transfer
Mechanism

247
52
178
315

atomic vibrations
and motion of free
electrons

38
39
1.7
1.4

atomic vibrations

0.12
0.46-0.50 vibration/rotation of
chain molecules
0.13
0.25

Selected values from Table 19.1, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 -

37

Thermal Stresses
Occur due to:
L
thermal (T Troom )
Lroom

Thermal stress

E (compress )

Chapter 18 - 38

Example Problem
-- A brass rod is stress-free at room temperature (20C).
-- It is heated up, but prevented from lengthening.
-- At what temperature does the stress reach -172 MPa?
Solution:
T0

Original conditions

0
Step 1: Assume unconstrained thermal expansion

Tf
Step 2: Compress specimen back to original length

Chapter 18 - 39

Example Problem (cont.)

0

The thermal stress can be directly

calculated as

E (compress )

Noting that compress = -thermal and substituting gives

E (thermal ) E
(Tf T0 ) E (T0 Tf )
Rearranging and solving for Tf gives
20C

Tf T0

Answer: 106C

100 GPa

-172 MPa (since in compression)

20 x 10-6/C
Chapter 18 - 40

Thermal Shock

Chapter 18 - 41

Summary
The thermal properties of materials include:
Heat capacity:
-- energy required to increase a mole of material by a unit T
-- energy is stored as atomic vibrations

Coefficient of thermal expansion:

-- the size of a material changes with a change in temperature
-- polymers have the largest values

Thermal conductivity:
-- the ability of a material to transport heat
-- metals have the largest values

Thermal shock resistance:

-- the ability of a material to be rapidly cooled and not fracture
Chapter 18 - 42

Magnetic Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What are the important magnetic properties?
How do we explain magnetic phenomena?
How are magnetic materials classified?
How does magnetic memory storage work?
What is superconductivity?

Chapter 18 - 43

Generation of a Magnetic Field Vacuum

Created by current through a coil:
B0
H
I

N = total number of turns

= length of each turn (m)
I = current (ampere)
H = magnetic field (ampere-turns/m)
B0 = magnetic flux density in a vacuum
(tesla)

Computation of the applied magnetic field, H:

NI
H

Chapter 18 - 44

Generation of a Magnetic Field -within a Solid Material

A magnetic field is induced in the material

B
applied
magnetic
field H

B = Magnetic Induction / Flux density

inside the material (tesla)

B = H
permeability of a solid

current I

Chapter 18 - 45

Generation of a Magnetic Field -within a Solid Material (cont.)

m magnetic susceptibility
a measure of a materials
magnetic response relative to
a vacuum

m > 0
vacuum m = 0
m < 0

H
Chapter 18 -

B (tesla)

Types of Magnetism
(3) ferromagnetic e.g. Fe3O4, NiFe2O4
(4) ferrimagnetic e.g. ferrite(), Co, Ni, Gd
( m as large as 106 !)
(2) paramagnetic ( m ~ 10-4)
e.g., Al, Cr, Mo, Na, Ti, Zr

vacuum (m = 0)
(1) diamagnetic (m ~ -10-5)
e.g., Al2O3, Cu, Au, Si, Ag, Zn

H (ampere-turns/m)
Plot adapted from Fig. 20.6, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Values and materials from Table 20.2 and discussion in
Section 20.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 18 - 47

Domains in ferromagnetic materials

Magnetic moments arise from electron motions and the
spins on electrons.
magnetic moments
electron
nucleus

electron orbital
motion

electron
spin

electron
spin

Chapter 18 - 48

Magnetic Responses for 4 Types

none

opposing

Adapted from Fig.

20.5(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

(2) paramagnetic

random

aligned

Adapted from Fig.

20.5(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

(3) ferromagnetic
(4) ferrimagnetic

aligned

Applied
Magnetic Field (H)

aligned

No Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0)

Adapted from Fig.

20.7, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

(1) diamagnetic

Chapter 18 - 49

Domains in Ferromagnetic &

Ferrimagnetic Materials
As the applied field (H) increases the magnetic domains
change shape and size by movement of domain boundaries.
B sat
H

Magnetic
induction (B)

H
H
H
H

Domains with
aligned magnetic
moment grow at
expense of poorly
aligned ones

Adapted from Fig.

20.13, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
20.13 adapted from
O.H. Wyatt and D. DewHughes, Metals,
Ceramics, and
Polymers, Cambridge
University Press, 1974.)

Applied Magnetic Field (H)

H=0

Chapter 18 - 50

Domains in Ferromagnetic &

Ferrimagnetic Materials
As the applied field (H) increases the magnetic domains
change shape and size by movement of domain boundaries.

Domains in a ferromagnetic material.

Chapter 18 -

Hysteresis and Permanent

Magnetization
The magnetic hysteresis phenomenon
B
Stage 3. Remove H, alignment
remains! => permanent magnet!

Stage 4. Coercivity, HC
Negative H needed to
demagnitize!

Stage 5. Apply -H,

align domains

Stage 2. Apply H,
align domains

Adapted from Fig. 20.14,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Stage 1. Initial (unmagnetized state)

Stage 6. Close the

hysteresis loop

Chapter 18 - 52

Magnetic Storage
Digitized data in the form of electrical signals are transferred to
and recorded digitally on a magnetic medium (tape or disk)
This transference is accomplished by a recording system that
a read/write
head a
--consists
write orofrecord
data by applying
magnetic field that aligns domains
in small regions of the recording
medium
-- read or retrieve data from
medium by sensing changes
in magnetization

Fig. 20.23, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 53

Superconductivity
Found in 26 metals and hundreds of alloys & compounds
Mercury

Copper
(normal)

4.2 K

Fig. 20.26, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.

TC = critical temperature
= temperature below which material is superconductive
Chapter 18 - 54

Advances in Superconductivity
Research in superconductive materials was stagnant
for many years.
Everyone assumed TC,max was about 23 K
Many theories said it was impossible to increase TC
beyond this value
1987- new materials were discovered with TC > 30 K
ceramics of form Ba1-x Kx BiO3-y
Started enormous race
Y Ba2Cu3O7-x TC = 90 K
Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3Ox TC = 122 K
difficult to make since oxidation state is very important

The major problem is that these ceramic materials are

inherently brittle.
Chapter 18 - 55

Summary
A magnetic field is produced when a current flows
through a wire coil.
Magnetic induction (B):
-- an internal magnetic field is induced in a material that is
situated within an external magnetic field (H).

Types of material responses to magnetic fields are:

-- ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic (large magnetic susceptibilities)
-- paramagnetic (small and positive magnetic susceptibilities)
-- diamagnetic (small and negative magnetic susceptibilities)

Magnetic storage
Superconductivity

Chapter 18 - 56

Optical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What phenomena occur when light is shined on a material?
What determines the characteristic colors of materials?
Why are some materials transparent and others are
translucent or opaque?

Chapter 18 - 57

Light Interactions with Solids

Incident light is reflected, absorbed, scattered, and/or
transmitted: I 0 IT I A I R I S
Reflected: IR

Absorbed: IA
Transmitted: IT

Incident: I0

Scattered: IS

Optical classification of materials:

Transparent

Translucent
Opaque

single
crystal

polycrystalline
dense

Adapted from Fig. 21.10, Callister

6e. (Fig. 21.10 is by J. Telford,
with specimen preparation by P.A.
Lessing.)

polycrystalline
porous

Chapter 18 - 58

Optical Properties of Metals:

Absorption
Absorption of photons by electron transitions:
Energy of electron
unfilled states

to
ho

tp
n
de
i
c
r gy
In
e
en

E
filled states
Adapted from Fig. 21.4(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Unfilled electron states are adjacent to filled states

Near-surface electrons absorb visible light.
Chapter 18 - 59

Reflection of Light for Metals

Electron transition from an excited state produces a photon.
Energy of electron

IR
photon emitted
from metal
surface

unfilled states
conducting electron
Electron transition
filled states

Adapted from Fig. 21.4(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 60

Scattering of Light in Polymers

For highly amorphous and pore-free polymers
Little or no scattering
These materials are transparent
Semicrystalline polymers
Different indices of refraction for amorphous and
crystalline regions
Scattering of light at boundaries
Highly crystalline polymers may be opaque
Examples:
Polycarbonate (amorphous) clear and transparent
Low-density polyethylene opaque
Chapter 18 - 61

Color of Nonmetals
Color determined by the distribution of wavelengths:
-- transmitted light
-- re-emitted light from electron transitions

Example 1: Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Eg = 2.4 eV

-- absorbs higher energy visible light (blue, violet)
-- color results from red/orange/yellow light that is transmitted

Example 2: Ruby = Sapphire (Al2O3) + (0.5 to 2) at% Cr2O3

alters the band gap

blue and orange/yellow/green
light is absorbed
red light is transmitted
Result: Ruby is deep
red in color

Transmittance (%)

-- Sapphire is transparent and

colorless (Eg > 3.1 eV)
-- adding Cr2O3 :

80

sapphire

70

ruby

60
50
40
0.3

wavelength, (= c/)(m)
0.5

0.7

0.9

Adapted from Fig. 21.9, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

(Fig. 21.9 adapted from "The Optical Properties of
Materials" by A. Javan, Scientific American, 1967.)
Chapter 18 - 62

Summary of Optical Properties

(in the visible light spectrum)
Metals are always opaque (can absorb all photons)
Insulators are:
transparent if single crystal (photons dont have
enough energy to be absorbed by exciting an
electron across the band gap)
or translucent or opaque if polycrystalline or porous
Semiconductors can be transparent or opaque
depending on band gap
Polymers are:
Transparent if amorphous and defect-free
Translucent or opaque if semicrystalline
Chapter 18 - 63

Luminescence
Luminescence reemission of light by a material
Material absorbs light at one frequency and reemits it at
another (lower) frequency with minimal thermal excitation
Trapped (donor/acceptor) states introduced by
impurities/defects
Conduction band

Eg

trapped
states

Eemission
activator
level

Valence band

If residence time in trapped state is

relatively long (> 10-8 s)
-- phosphorescence

For short residence times (< 10-8 s)

-- fluorescence
Example: Toys that glow in the dark.
Charge toys by exposing them to
light. Reemission of light over time
phosphorescence
Chapter 18 - 64

Revision

Exam: 50 multiple choice, many involve calculations

Lecture material, tutorials, lab, quizzes, textbook
Past exams
Concepts, principles, examples, definitions, methodologies

Chapter 18 - 65